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THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

ITS  PROBLEMS  AND   POSSIBILITIES 


2  98     «  i 


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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO    •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


THE 

VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE 
MOVEMENT 

ITS  PROBLEMS  AND  POSSIBILITIES 


BY 
JOHN  M.    BREWER 

HEAD  OF  THE   DEPARTMENT  OF  PSYCHOLOGY  AND  EDUCATION 

LOS   ANGELES   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL 

FORMERLY   INSTRUCTOR   IN   EDUCATION,   HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR  OF   "  ORAL  ENGLISH  " 

AUTHOR,   WITH   ROY   WILLMARTH   KELLY,    OF 

"a  SELECTED   CRITICAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE" 


Neto  gork 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1918 

All  rights  nurvtd 


COFVRIGHT,    1918, 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  January,  1918. 


NotfaooB  IPresa 

J.  8.  Cushing  Co.  —  Benrick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


E.  G.  B. 


PREFACE 

Vocational  guidance  is  bound  up  first  of  all  with 
educational  problems,  and  second  with  economic  and 
social  questions.  On  this  account  the  reader  must  not 
expect  a  book  on  the  subject  to  offer  anything  like  a 
complete  program  or  solution  of  the  problem.  The 
breadth  of  the  field  considered  in  this  book,  however, 
should  prove  a  distinct  advantage  to  those  readers  who 
are  willing  to  set  aside  the  desire  for  short  cuts  and  to 
work  out  thoughtful  proposals  for  bettering  hopeful  but 
inadequate  pioneering  on  the  one  hand  and  complete 
neglect  on  the  other. 

If  the  movement  for  vocational  guidance  has  so  far 
proved  but  one  thing,  it  is  that  the  indefinite  education 
for  the  vague  thing  called  "complete  living"  or  "physical, 
mental,  and  moral  development"  must  give  way  to  a 
well-considered  aiming  at  specific  needs  —  needs  such 
as  those  represented  by  the  individual's  right,  duty,  and 
desire  to  fulfill  family  relationships,  to  vote  intelligently, 
to  maintain  a  good  standard  of  living,  and  to  cooperate 
in  all  phases  of  endeavor  for  human  good.  These  spe- 
cialized trainings  are  by  no  means  narrow ;  it  is  the 
indefinite  education  which  has  been  narrow. 

Vocational  guidance  must  be  considered  as  different 
from  vocational  education  ;   the  latter  is  concerned  with 

vii 


Vlll  PREFACE 

but  one  of  the  steps  in  adequate  guidance,  but  its  advo- 
cates have  too  often  neglected  the  other  steps  in  the  com- 
plete series.  This  complete  series,  so  far  as  the  individual 
is  concerned,  may  be  stated  as  follows :  (i)  Laying  a 
broad  foundation  of  useful  experiences ;  (2)  Studying 
occupational  opportunities  ;  (3)  Choosing  an  occupation ; 
(4)  Preparing  for  the  occupation ;  (5)  Entering  upon 
work ;  (6)  Securing  promotions  and  making  readjust- 
ments. 

As  a  civic  force,  vocational  guidance  is  concerned  with 
increasing  the  knowledge  of  occupational  problems,  as  a 
necessary  basis  for  their  cooperative  solution.  As  a 
moral  force,  the  counselor  must  inculcate  not  only  the 
personal  virtues  needed  in  the  successful  pursuit  of  one's 
calling,  but  also  the  social  helpfulness  based  on  the  under- 
standing that  the  cooperative  opportunities  are  greater 
than  the  competitive,  and  on  the  theory  of  society,  "We 
are  members  one  of  another."  As  an  agent  of  culture, 
vocational  guidance  seeks  for  harmonious  and  refined 
living  in  street,  store,  factory,  shop,  farm,  and  mine,  as 
well  as  in  the  literary  society  and  at  the  fireside. 

This  book  is  offered  as  a  contribution  to  the  prepa- 
ration for  the  task  ahead  of  us :  it  is  the  hope  of  the 
writer  that  it  may  become  a  part  of  the  literature  of  the 
reconstruction. 

I  thank  Professor  Paul  H.  Hanus  for  his  guidance  and 
criticism  during  the  course  of  the  investigation,  and  the 
other  members  of  the  Division  of  Education  of  Harvard 
University    for   occasional    assistance    and    suggestion. 


PREFACE  IX 

Mr.  Meyer  Bloomfield  gave  me  the  benefit  of  his  wide 
experience  in  the  movement.  Mr.  Frederick  J.  Allen 
read  the  manuscript  and  offered  valuable  help.  Miss 
Susan  J.  Ginn  gave  information  relative  to  the  work  in 
Boston.  Counselors  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
contributed  by  detailed  replies  to  my  requests  for  further 
enlightenment  about  their  work.  Edith  Gaddis  Brewer 
assisted  throughout  the  study. 

Economy  in  publication  has  been  aided  by  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  the  footnotes.  In  all  cases  the  proper  names  refer 
directly  to  the  Bibliography,  Appendix  II.  Three  books 
to  which  constant  reference  is  made  in  the  text  and  the 
footnotes  are  as  follows :  Bloomfield's  Youth,  School, 
and  Vocation  and  Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance;  and 
Davis'  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance. 

JOHN  M.  BREWER. 

Los  Angeles, 
California. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I    The  Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance      .        .  i 

II    Beginnings  in  Vocational  Guidance    ...  20 

III  Vocational     Guidance     through    Educational 

Guidance 53 

IV  Vocational  Counseling  and  the  Work  of  the 

Counselor 97 

V    Pseudo-guidance 143 

VI    The  Young  Worker 178 

VII    The  Problems  of  Employment      .        .        .        .199 
VIII    A  Program  for  Vocational  Guidance         .        .227 

APPENDICES 

I    Glossary  of  Terms 289 

II    Bibliography 292 

III    Problems  and  Questions 310 

Index  of  Names 325 

Index  of  Subjects 328 


zi 


THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE 
MOVEMENT 

CHAPTER   I 

The  Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  make  clear  the  problems 
with  which  the  vocational-guidance  movement  deals ;  to 
examine  and  evaluate  the  attempts  so  far  made  to  solve 
these  problems  in  schools  and  in  occupations ;  and  to  pro- 
pose plans,  in  the  light  of  what  has  already  been  accom- 
plished, for  the  further  progress  of  the  movement.  The 
purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  scrutinize  the  definitions  and 
assumptions  which  underlie  vocational  guidance  as  its 
activities  are  carried  on  to-day. 

What  is  Vocational  Guidance  ?  —  The  common  mean- 
ing of  the  two  words  in  the  phrase  vocational  guidance 
suggests  that  we  are  concerned  with  helping  persons  to 
choose,  prepare  for,  enter  into,  and  make  progress  in 
occupations.  Such  activities  as  the  following,  then, 
would  be  considered  as  exemplifying  vocational  guidance : 
giving  information  about  commerce  and  industry,  in 
order  to  help  in  the  choice  of  an  occupation  or  a  job ; 

B  Z 


2  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

giving  opportunity  to  discover  talents,  with  the  voca- 
tional choice  in  mind ;  advising  pupils  to  enter  this  or 
that  school,  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  their  talents 
or  preparing  for  an  occupation ;  advising  in  regard  to 
promotion,  change  of  job,  after-education,  or  advanced 
study;  supervising  the  entrance  into  or  progress  in 
particular  positions  or  chosen  occupations. 

We  shall  assume  that  the  rendering  of  such  help  to 
young  people  fairly  represents  vocational  guidance,  and 
shall  proceed  to  a  study  of  the  problems  involved  in  the 
process. 

The  Importance  of  Vocational  Guidance :  One's  Oc- 
cupation as  the  Center  of  his  Interest.  —  "  For  the  great 
masses  of  men,  Hfe  is  organized  around  work,"  ^  and  this 
is  the  reason  why  it  is  important  that  every  child  have 
adequate  vocational  guidance.  Eliot  shows  "  the  value 
during  education  of  the  Hfe-career  motive."  ^  He  calls 
attention  to  the  success  with  which  the  career  motive  is 
used  in  the  professional  schools,  and  in  the  lower  schools 
wherever  tried.  He  points  out  that  there  need  be  no 
danger  of  appeahng  too  early  to  the  career  motive,  since 
the  child's  interests  may  be  kept  broad,  and  since  he  may 
be  left  free  to  change  his  plans  at  any  time,  without 
serious  difficulty. 

The  love  that  young  children  have  for  pla>dng  occupa- 
tions, the  interest  shown  by  pupils  in  those  studies  which 
they  think  are  "  practical,"  and  the  activity  manifested 

1  See  bibliography,  Appendix  II,  Greany,  Bloomfield's  Readings,  p.  268. 

2  Bloomfield's  Readiiigs,  pp.  1-12. 


THE   PROBLEMS   OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  $ 

y  children  in  making  things,  all  indicate  that  if  the 
iolescent  boy  or  girl  can  be  induced  to  select  from  five 
)  ten  occupations  for  consideration  and  study,  his  school 
ork  can  be  made  to  improve,  his  interest  in  observing 
le  life  about  him  increased,  and  his  moral  purposes 
eepened.  Future  family  duties,  possible  activities  of 
itizenship,  moral  and  spiritual  responsibilities,  which 
till  seem  remote  and  hypothetical  to  the  young  mind 
-  at  least  so  far  as  the  current  modes  of  presenting  these 
uties  go  —  seem  vague  beside  the  effectiveness  of  the 
ocational  appeal. 

The  Bearing  of  the  Vocation  on  Life.  —  Not  only  is 
he  vocational  appeal  an  insistent  and  obvious  one ;  it 
requently  enforces  the  other  duties  of  life.  Thus,  the 
)gic  in  the  title  of  a  pubHcation  in  this  field,  Vocational 
nd  Moral  Guidance,  is  that  there  can  be  no  true  success 
1  the  vocation  without  sound  morals.^ 

Further,  vocational  guidance  inculcates  ideals  of 
itizenship.  Not  only  should  the  pupil  be  shown  the 
conomic  values  to  the  community  in  the  kinds  of  work 
e  is  considering ;  he  should  also  see  how  dependent  he 
nd  his  business  or  employment  will  be  upon  good  govern- 
lent,  just  taxation,  equal  opportunity  before  the  law, 
ublicity  in  civic  affairs,  trustworthy  sources  of  informa- 
ion,  adequate  recreational  facilities,  and  a  rectification 

'  Jesse  B.  Davis  in  this  book  cites  the  case  of  a  boy  who  had  all  the 
lental  and  physical  qualifications  for  a  certain  occupation,  but  failed 
irough  an  uncontrolled  temper  (p.  87).  Every  counselor,  as  well  as, 
'ery  enlightened  employer,  knows  that  certain  qualities  such  as  kind- 
ess,  courtesy,  and  willingness  to  be  of  service  are  indispensable. 


4  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

of  economic  injustices.  The  boy  with  a  career  in  mind 
is  in  a  better  position  to  study  these  things  effectively. 

The  wise  settlement  of  the  question  of  vocation  sets 
free  other  life  interests,  which  then  gain  direction  and 
impulse,  and  are  allowed  to  proceed  toward  a  well- 
rounded  development.  If  the  question  of  occupation  is 
unwisely  settled,  or  left  overlong  unsettled,  there  may 
develop  distrust,  pessimism,  and  temptation,  and 
finally  immorality  and  bad  citizenship. 

The  Need  for  Vocational  Guidance  is  Obvious.  — 
The  writings  on  vocational  guidance  contain  adequate 
discussions  of  the  need  for  the  work,  and  we  shall  say 
little  on  this  topic  here.  Bloomfield  ^  justifies  his  term 
"  vocational  anarchy,"  and  both  he  and  Philip  Davis 
show  how  the  suggestions  of  the  street  now  determine 
occupations  for  the  young  people.^  Such  good  studies 
of  the  need  have  been  made  that  no  student  of  the  prob- 
lem fails  to  see  it  as  an  urgent  demand.^  Yet  the 
public  mind  moves  slowly,  and  the  education  of  com- 
munity opinion  needs  to  be  extended  greatly. 

The  amount  and  character  of  the  false  guidance  which 
goes  on  is  proof  enough  that  the  schools  and  other 
educational  agencies  should  take  up  the  work.  Worse 
than  quack  medicines,  because  they  poison  the  mind 
rather  than  the  body,  these  attempts  to  give  advice, 
and  to  charge  money  for  it,  are  crying  aloud  to  younp' 

^  Youth,  etc.,  pp.  3-5.  2  Streetland,  Chs.  6  and  7. 

'  For  a  summary  of  the  arguments  on  need,  see  Woods,  in  Bloomfield's 
Readings,  pp.  30-31. 


THE   PROBLEMS    OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  5 

people  just  at  the  age  when  their  desires  for  experimen- 
tation and  self-discovery  are  greatest.  In  a  prominent 
statistical  annual,  issued  by  a  New  York  newspaper, 
and  frequently  used  by  high-school  debaters,  there  are 
several  advertisements  which  should  cause  concern  to 
those  interested  in  vocational  guidance.  One  is  headed, 
"  strengthen  your  will  "  ;  another  offers  to  tell  how  to 
master  others  and  make  them  do  as  you  wish ;  another 
offers  to  read  your  life ;  three  to  teach  hypnotism ; 
another  to  build  your  memory  so  that  it  will  never 
fail. 

We  have  pointed  out  above  that  happiness,  good  cit- 
izenship, morality,  and  social  usefulness  are  frequently 
bound  up  with  the  choice  of  a  vocation.  Such  a  momen- 
tous choice  can  no  longer  be  left  to  chance. 

What  Vocational  Guidance  is  not.  Attempts  to 
Limit  the  Field.  —  No  one  step  or  operation  in  the 
systematic  process  of  advising  a  person  about  his  voca- 
tion can  be  singled  out  and  labeled  vocational  guidance. 
We  shall  not  quarrel  with  an  attempt  to  discover  which 
I  step  is  the  most  important,  but  we  shall  take  exception 
to  certain  prevalent  assumptions  that  the  field  is  limited 
to  any  one  act  or  any  one  period  of  the  child's  life.  If 
the  ordinary  meanings  of  English  words  are  to  hold 
good  here,  no  single  step  can  be  called  "  the  heart  of 
vocational  guidance." 

Placement  Alone  is  not  Adequate  Vocational  Guidance. 
—  In  the  introductory  statement  of  a  recent  article  we 
find  this  sentence : 


6  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Indeed  the  act  of  placing  a  boy  or  girl  in  that  job  which 
will  be  suited  to  his  or  her  abilities,  future  welfare,  health, 
and  happiness,  might  almost  be  ofiEered  as  a  definition  of 
vocational  guidance.^ 

Perhaps  the  "  almost "  should  save  the  statement 
from  challenge,  but  the  definition  is  a  prevalent  one,  and 
there  are  many  so-called  "  vocational-guidance  "  officers, 
both  in  school  departments  and  in  other  institutions, 
whose  whole  time  is  taken  up  with  placement  and  the 
investigations  necessary  thereto. 

We  shall  discuss  in  a  later  chapter  the  appropriate 
subordination  of  placement  to  other  activities  of  voca- 
tional guidance  (Chap.  IV) ;  our  aim  here  is  merely  to 
point  out  that  we  cannot  accept  the  statement  that 
placement  is  almost  the  whole  of  guidance.  Obvious 
needs,  trustworthy  experience,  and  good  practice,  as 
we  shall  see,  as  well  as  the  meaning  of  words,  prevent 
such  a  restricted  definition.^ 


^  Odencrantz,  p.  169.  Aside  from  the  present  issue  on  definition,  one 
may  fairly  ask,  Is  there  any  one  job  which  will  satisfy  these  tests? 

2  The  breadth  of  the  field  is  shown  by  this  extract  from  Bloomfield, 
Youth,  School,  and  Vocation  : 

To  some  people,  indeed,  the  placement  features  of  vocational  guidance 
are  alone  practical,  while  the  efforts  looking  to  a  reorganization  of  school 
and  vocational  opportunity  in  terms  of  career-values,  which  maj'  be 
said  to  be  the  mainspring  of  the  vocational-guidance  movement,  appear 
to  them  as  a  commendable  though  rather  remote  ideal. 

The  truth  is,  however,  that  vocational  guidance  does  concern  itself 
with  all  the  problems  of  work-getting,  with  helping  children  to  a  start 
in  life  in  a  way  less  wasteful  than  the  present,  and  with  active  super- 
vision of  youth's  vocational  skirmishes  (p.  158). 


THE   PROBLEMS   OF  VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  7 

Guidance  is  not  a  Temporary  Act.  —  One  writer 
remarks : 

Since  vocational  guidance  has  to  do  with  the  "start  in 
life,"  and  since  it  necessitates  an  articulation  between  the 
school  and  occupations,  the  time  at  which  it  may  be  exercised 
most  intelligently  is  that  at  which  the  pupil  leaves  school.^ 

It  is  true  that  the  writer  of  the  foregoing  quotation 
goes  on  to  show  that  for  some  pupils  he  plans  guidance 
before  that  tim.e,  and  guidance  after  leaving  for  most 
of  them.     But  does   not   the   statement   as   it   stands 
have  the  effect  —  unintentionally,  no  doubt  —  of  limit- 
ing the  application  of  vocational  guidance  to  one  period 
and  one  activity?    A  Cambridge  lumber  company  uses 
in  its   advertising   placards   the   expression,    "  Sudden 
Service."     Such  service  may  be  rendered  by  a  Itunber 
company;    can   it  be  profitably  rendered  by  a  voca- 
tional counselor?     Patent  considerations  point  to  the 
answer:    If  the  program  of  vocational  guidance   is   to 
be  adequate  to  the   great   task   with   which   it   deals, 
it  must  provide  for  a  study  of  the  successes  of  the  child 
during  the  years  before  he  can  possibly  go  to  work.    No 
other  plan  could  yield  the  data  necessary  for  guidance. 

Further,  the  school-leaving  time,  with  its  atmosphere 
disturbed  by  many  influences,  is  hardly  the  psychological 

1  Leavitt,  Frank  M.,  The  School  Phases  of  Vocational  Guidance,  p.  688. 
That  the  writer  has  a  broad  conception   of  the  duty  of  vocational 
guidance  is  shown  in  his  address  at  the  Richmond  Convention,  as  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Vocational-Guidance  Association,  which  see.     See 
also  his  article  in  The  American  Journal  of  Sociology. 


8  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

moment  to  apply  systematic  vocational  guidance,  even 
if  it  were  possible  to  confine  it  to  one  period.  Due  to 
the  very  nature  and  complexity  of  the  problems  involved, 
vocational  guidance  cannot  be  satisfactory  without  a 
program  which  follows  the  development  of  the  individ- 
ual over  a  number  of  years. 

Vocational  Guidance  is  not  merely  "  Practical  "  or 
"  Idealistic."  —  In  the  article  last  quoted,  the  statement 
is  made : 

In  developing  a  program  for  vocational  guidance,  there- 
fore, we  must  distinguish  clearly  between  the  immediate  and 
the  ultimate  purpose,  and  must  realize  that  the  "  next  step" 
is  the  most  important  consideration  (p.  687). 

No  doubt  this  is  just  half  the  truth,  and  perhaps 
not  the  fundamental  half.  In  counseling  an  individual 
child  we  could  hardly  say  that  the  next  step  is  a  con- 
sideration more  important  than  his  ultimate  goal. 
Such  a  policy  would  savor  too  strongly  of  the  vaudeville 
song,  "  I  don't  know  where  I'm  going,  but  I'm  on  my 
way  ! "  We  may  fairly  ask,  Can  the  vocational- 
guidance  movement,  any  more  than  an  individual, 
afford  to  take  next  steps  without  first  attempting  to 
ascertain  in  what  'direction  these  steps  lead?  The  two 
ideals  must  be  irrevocably  bound  together.  We  do  not 
need  to  slight  the  importance  of  one  in  holding  in  mind 
the  other. 

But  it  may  be  said  that  economic  conditions  make  it 
impossible  for  the  teacher  to  widen  vocational  oppor- 
tunity, and  that  therefore  he  should  concern  himself 


THE   PROBLEMS   OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  Q 

rather  with  meeting  practical  situations  as  they  exist 
to-day.     It  is  said  in  the  same  article : 

It  is  futile  to  talk  about  the  value  of  the  life-career  motive 
in  the  guidance  of  this  group,  for  most  will  have  to  be  con- 
tented with  "jobs  "  for  many  years,  and  perhaps  may  never 
enter  upon  a  genuine  "career"  or  "  vocation. "  (The  group 
referred  to  is  "  The  group  which  leaves  school  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  compulsory  age  limit  with  about  an  eighth-grade 
training.")     [P.  689.] 

Undoubtedly  school  people  need  to  pay  more  attention 
to  practical  aims  and  to  practical  education.  At  the 
same  time,  however,  they  need  to  add  their  influence 
to  the  forces  working  for  civic,  social,  and  political 
betterment.  The  child  must  not  be  set  into  a  place  and 
left  to  do  all  the  conforming ;  he  must  be  taught  to  apply 
his  control  to  the  forces  which  seem  to  hem  him  in.  In 
order  to  show  him  how  to  do  this,  the  teacher  himself 
must  participate  in  the  control.     In  the  words  of  Devine : 

The  omnipresent  local  social  economist  is  the  school.  The 
assumption  of  social  responsibility  for  poverty,  disease,  and 
crime  clearly  involves  the  transformation  of  the  school.  .  .  . 

The  social  economist  holds  that  the  prevention  of  poverty, 
disease,  and  crime  is  the  first,  elementary,  fundamental 
obligation  of  the  public  school  system.^ 

Vocational  Guidance  must  not  Restrict  Opportunity.  — 
Closely  related  to  the  foregoing  discussion  is  the  ques- 
tion: Does  vocational  guidance  aim  to  widen  the 
opportunity  for  the  "  common  people,"  or   to   restrict 

'  Quoted  by  President  Leavitt,  Nat.  Voc.  Guidance  Assn.,  1914,  p.  5. 


lO  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

it  ?  For  the  query  is  frequently  raised :  After  all,  can 
there  be  a  wide  freedom  of  choice,  at  least  for  the  greater 
number  of  children  ?  According  to  Schneider  ^  the 
number  of  "  energizing  "  jobs  is  decreasing ;  how  then, 
it  is  asked,  can  we  be  so  shortsighted  as  to  make  more 
skilled  workers  ?  Shall  we  not,  if  we  cKng  to  democratic 
ideals,  educate  children  for  work  they  can  never  find? 
What  guidance  can  we  give  those  manifestly  destined 
for  the  unskilled  occupations  ?  What  shall  we  do  — 
indeed,  what  can  we  do  —  for  the  child  who  leaves 
school  to  begin  work  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  or  seventh 
grade  ?  What  shall  we  do  with  the  boy  with  extravagant 
ambitions?  Thus  Sears  expresses  concern  that  some 
seventh  and  eighth  grade  boys  had  not  yet  decided  upon 
an  occupation : 

Little  can  be  said  as  to  the  meaning  of  this,  but  if  it  really 
means  that  that  per  cent  [ten  per  cent]  of  boys  are  not  pre- 
disposed toward  some  calling,  then  perhaps  "nurture"  in 
place  of  "  nature  "  must  constitute  itself  the  sole  guide  in 
the  matter,  and  in  the  light  of  the  industrial  demand  for 
workers,  and  its  best  judgment  of  child  nature,  train  these 
boys  to  become  responsible  members  of  the  community 
(P-  752). 

and  again : 

The  boys  are  to  too  large  an  extent  aiming  at  something 
they  can  never  reach.  The  function  of  the  schools  is  first 
to  rationalize  those  aspirations,  and  then  to  carry  forward 
the  present  plans  for  occupational  trainmg  suggested  above, 
which  the  writer  has  observed  in  successful  operation  in  at 

I  Education  for  Industrial  Workers,  pp.  9-1 1. 


THE   PROBLEMS    OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  II 

least  one  large  vocational  school  in   the  city   (Oakland). 
[P.  756.] 

We  shall  deal  with  these  issues  later  (Chap.  V). 
For  the  present,  however,  we  may  note  one  or  two 
objections,  and  indicate  possible  alternatives.  First, 
there  is  no  reason  why  seventh  and  eighth  grade  boys 
and  girls  should  be  required  to  decide  on  their  occupa- 
tions. Second,  the  school  must  avoid  interfering  with 
the  plans  of  individuals,  and  must  confine  its  efforts  to 
other  channels.  Third,  guidance  cannot  pass  into  proph- 
ecy —  out  of  twenty  would-be  lawyers  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  tell  which  are  the  two  or  three  who  will  reach 
the  goal.  Finally,  there  are  other  ways  in  which  these 
problems  may  be  attackea:  we  may  take  our  part  in 
a  campaign  to  improve  the  tasks  and  the  recreational 
opportunities  of  the  unskilled;  we  may  instruct  the 
children  about  the  character  of  the  problems  ahead  of 
them  if  they  choose  difficult  roads ;  and  we  may  make 
it  easier  for  the  child  to  change  his  aim  when  necessary, 
without  any  loss  of  self-respect. 

If  vocational  guidance  is  to  serve  a  state  committed 
to  democratic  principles,  it  cannot  proceed  otherwise 
than  through  striving  for  open  opportunity  based  on 
breadth  of  vocational  intelligence. 

Vocational  Guidance  does  not  Mean  Classifying 
Children  and  Prescribing  Occupations.  —  There  is  no 
authority  in  definition,  theory,  or  practice  for  prescrib- 
ing vocations  or  classifying  children ;  for  neither  activity 
is  there  any  right  or  possibility.     In  spite  of  the  confident 


12  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

attempts  to  classify,  psychological  analyses  have  not  yet 
reached  trustworthy  results.^  Vocational  guidance  does 
not  mean  that  older  people  will  impose  ideas  upon  the 
children  ;  the  business  of  the  teacher  is  rather  to  provide 
the  environment  in  which  each  child  will  make  for  him- 
self the  series  of  choices  which  will  determine  his  course 
of  life. 

Summary.  —  Turning  again  to  the  definition  we  have 
assumed,  —  that  vocational  guidance  is  concerned  with 
helping  persons  choose,  prepare  for,  enter  into,  and  make 
progress  in  occupations  —  we  are  now  able  to  compare 
the  details  of  this  statement  with  those  activities  which 
we  have  said  vocational  guidance  is  not.  In  brief, 
help  in  taking  any  single  one  of  these  steps  in  vocational 
progress,  taken  by  itself,  cannot  be  claimed  to  be  the 
sum  and  substance  of  vocational  guidance  ;  and  further, 
the  guidance  given  the  child  must  be  both  practical  and 
idealistic,  continued  long  enough  to  be  based  upon  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  child,  aimed  at  broadening  his  op- 
portunity, and  free  from  classification  and  prescription. 

What  is  Educational  Guidance?  —  Conscious  effort 
to  assist  in  the  intellectual  growth  of  an  individual  is 
educational  guidance.  The  following  acts  will  serve 
as  examples :  telling  about  the  arithmetic  needed  in  a 
certain  trade  ;  aiding  in  the  choice  of  a  course  or  a  school ; 

1  There  are  types  of  thinking,  but  we  cannot  say  that  there  are  types 
of  mind.  Vocational  guidance  cannot  afford  to  wait  on  psjxhologj-, 
though  it  may  use  whatever  constructive  results  are  offered.  The 
danger  with  using  the  theory  that  there  are  types  of  children  we  shall 
discuss  in  Chapter  V. 


THE   PROBLEMS    OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  1 3 

helping  in  plans  to  return  to  school;  advising  one  to 
broaden  his  curriculum  by  studying  music ;  advising  a 
worker  to  transfer  to  another  department  in  order  to 
learn  a  new  kind  of  work ;  telling  how  to  play  a  game. 
Anything  which  has  to  do  with  instruction  or  with  learn- 
ing may  come  under  the  term  educational  guidance. 

Most  educational  guidance  is  also  vocational  guidance. 
But  when  it  has  to  do  strictly  with  social,  civic,  rec- 
reational, and  moral  affairs,  though  it  may  bear  in- 
directly on  the  occupation,  it  cannot  be  called  vocational 
guidance  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  For  example, 
advising  a  child  to  study  Latin  merely  to  broaden  his 
outlook  is  educational  but  not  vocational  guidance.  On 
the  other  hand,  helping  a  boy  to  secure  a  promotion  in 
his  occupation  is  an  act  of  vocational  but  not  of  educa- 
tional guidance. 

The  distinction  depends  on  the  purpose  involved: 
whether  to  improve  the  child's  vocational  chances,  or  to 
advance  his  education. 

The  chief  educational  guidance  needed  at  the  present 
time,  and  the  chief  way  it  can  serve  the  vocation  of  the 
child,  is  advice  about,  and  improvement  of,  his  schooHng. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  Bloomfield  speaks  of  educational 
guidance  as  the  first  step  in  vocational  guidance,  and 
says  further : 

The  question  of  choice  of  a  life-work  involves  quite  as 
much  selecting  the  right  kind  of  further  schooling  as  the 
right  vocation.^ 

1  Youth,  etc.,  p.  28. 


14  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

How  Vocational  Education  Helps  Guidance.  The 
Prevocational  Idea.  —  In  this  choice  of  further  schoohng 
vocational  guidance  is  no  longer  dependent  on  mere 
advice ;  vocational  education  has  provided  for  experi- 
mentation and  actual  preparation.  Experimentation 
comes  through  the  prevocational  school  (see  Glossary, 
App.  I),  in  which  the  child  is  successively  allowed  to 
participate  in  several  kinds  of  mental  and  manual 
activities,  for  the  purpose  of  self -disco  very.  There  is 
no  purpose  to  favor  the  manual  studies,  but  only  to 
provide  both  manual  and  academic  studies,  in  order  that 
broad  activity,  correlation  between  theory  and  practice, 
extended  vision,  and  more  intelligent  choice  may  result. 
The  following  statement  of  aims  is  significant : 

The  advocates  of  early  vocational  education  have  no 
fear  that  their  propaganda  will  endanger  liberal  education. 
On  the  contrary,  they  hold  that  the  reorganization  of  ed- 
ucation on  a  vocational  basis  will  give  motive  for  extended 
education  and  thus  provide  time  and  opportunity  for  liberal 
culture.  They  advocate  the  education  of  the  individual 
along  the  lines  of  his  greatest  endowment  and  as  broadly 
as  possible.  The  antiquated  liberal  plan  assumed  that  those 
who  found  books  too  much  for  them  would  drift  into  the 
ranks  of  the  manual  workers  and  get  on  as  best  they  could 
there.  In  abandoning  this  view  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to 
the  opposite  extreme,  namely,  that  pupils  should  be  tested 
and  all  who  prove  to  be  skillful  with  their  hands  be  trained 
for  the  trades  and  those  who  show  no  aptitude  for  handiwork 
be  left  to  drift  into  the  professions.  The  one  test  is  no  more 
decisive  than  the  other.  Of  the  two,  however,  the  second 
is  less  fraught  with  danger,  for  in  the  shop  as  well  as  in  the 


THE   PROBLEMS   OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  1 5 

classroom  there  is  opportunity  to  discover  pupils  who  are 
fitted  to  deal  with  theories  and  general  application  of  ideas.' 

Vocational  Training.  —  The  second  service  rendered  by 
vocational  education  is  the  actual  training  given  those 
who  have  decided  on  their  occupations.  This  training 
may  be  given  in  a  trade  school,  a  cooperative  or  part- 
time  school,  a  commercial  or  technical  day  or  night 
high  school,  or  a  college  or  professional  school;  how- 
ever rendered  it  is  a  significant  aid  to  efficient  vocational 
guidance. 

Our  study  has  so  far  considered  the  general  problem 
with  which  vocational  guidance  deals,  the  importance 
of  the  work,  the  false  assumptions,  and  the  relationship 
of  vocational  to  educational  guidance  and  vocational 
education.  We  shall  next  attempt  to  analyze  the  prob- 
lem —  to  state  the  main  questions  with  which  vocational 
guidance,  in  school  and  in  the  occupations,  is  concerned. 

The  School  Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance.  — 
The  following  lists  of  questions  indicate  three  things: 
(i)  the  extent  and  importance  of  the  field  ;  (2)  the  prob- 
lems with  which  present  efforts  to  furnish  vocational 
help  are  concerned ;  (3)  the  topics  with  which  this  book 
will  deal.  The  questions  in  this  section  will  furnish  the 
basis  for  the  study  in  the  next  four  chapters. 

Guidance  Problems  in  the  School 

I.  What  can  be  done  to  give  children  vocational  out- 
look, insight,  and  purpose  —  to  widen  each  child's  "  voca- 
tional horizon  "^ 

*  Van  Sickle. 


l6  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

(a)  What  can  be  done  to  counteract  the  restricted  viewpoint 
of  the  child's  immediate  experience? 

(b)  How  can  we  best  lead  the  child  to  see  the  value  of  more 
education?  How  can  we  rouse  him  to  the  need  for  mental  and 
moral  preparedness  ? 

2.  How  can  the  individual  discover  his  talents? 

(c)  How  can  we  help  him  to  self-discovery  ? 

(b)  What  school  plans  and  program  of  studies  will  aid? 

(c)  How  can  the  present  studies  be  made  to  yield  more  voca- 
tional stimulus  and  guidance  ? 

(d)  Are  there  any  tests  which  will  help  ? 

(e)  What  indirect  methods  of  guidance  are  there?  Student 
government?  Play,  and  games?  Athletics?  Scouting?  Clubs, 
societies,  and  other  activities?  Visits  to  stores  and  factories? 
After-school  and  vacation  employment  ? 

3.  How  may  a  person  prepare  for  his  occupation? 

(c)  What  are  the  available  methods,  with  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  each?  'WTiat  are  the  aims,  practices,  and  results 
of  each  ? 

(b)  What  studies  or  continuation  courses  can  be  offered  to 
working  people  ? 

4.  How  shall  we  obtain  and  use  occupational  information  ? 

(o)  How  may  we  survey  the  vocational  opportimities  before 
the  children  of  any  given  commimity? 

(b)  How  may  we  best  classify  vocational  information  ? 

(c)  How  may  we  present  this  information  to  the  children? 
What  courses  on  vocations  should  the  school  give?  How  should 
these  courses  be  managed  ?    What  printed  matter  should  be  used  ? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  methods  appropriate  in  guidance  ? 

(o)  What  shall  be  the  point  of  view  and  method  of  the  teacher, 
in  reference  to  the  occupational  futures  of  the  children  ? 

(b)  How  may  the  school  aid  the  young  person  in  securing  em- 
ployment ? 


THE   PROBLEMS   OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  1 7 

(c)  What  plans  for  follow-up  investigation  and  advice  shall  be 
adopted?  Should  school  authorities  supervise  the  employment 
of  minors  up  to  the  age  of  18  ?    Up  to  the  age  of  21  ? 

(J)  How  may  the  school  best  cooperate  with  the  employers  of 
labor?  With  organizations  of  workers?  With  civic  and  phil- 
anthropic associations?    With  parents? 

(e)  What  should  be  the  function  of  a  central  vocational  bureau, 
and  of  an  expert  counselor? 

(/)  How  shall  we  go  about  interviewing  and  advising  the  in- 
dividual child?  What  shall  be  the  manner  of  our  approach? 
What  shall  be  the  extent  and  limitations  set  upon  our  active 
guidance  ? 

6.  What  may  be  learned  from  actual  accomplishments, 
in  this  country  and  abroad  ? 

7.  How  may  a  principal  or  superintendent  inaugurate  a 
plan  for  vocational  guidance? 

The  Occupational  Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance.  — 
Many  of  the  questions  in  the  preceding  list  relate  to  the 
occupation  as  well  as  the  school.  Following  are  some 
additional  topics  which  concern  commerce  and  industry 
more  directly.  Consideration  of  these  problems  will 
appear  also  in  some  of  the  early  chapters  of  this  book, 
and  especially  in  Chapters  VI  and  VII. 

GuiD.Aj^CE  Problems  in  Occupations 

I.  How  is  the  transition  from  school  to  work  made,  and 
how  may  it  be  improved  ? 

(a)  Why  do  children  leave  school  early?  Are  the  reasons 
good  ones  ?    What  is  the  remedy  ? 

(b)  Is  the  work  of  children  under  sixteen  needed  to  carry  on 
American  industries? 

(c)  What  kind  of  work  do  young  children  do? 

c 


l8  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

(d)  Why  is  supervision  needed  ?  How  are  children  misguided, 
kept  in  ignorance,  or  exploited? 

(e)  How  do  children  secure  employment?  How  may  im- 
proved methods  be  inaugurated  ? 

2.  Shall  there  be  vocational  guidance  for  those  destined 
to  enter  the  unskilled  occupations?  Do  they  need  any 
guidance  ? 

(a)  Can  we  be  sure  which  children  are  so  destined?  Can 
destiny  be  changed  ? 

(b)  WTiat  would  be  the  economic  effect  of  educating  each  child 
to  his  fullest  ability  ?    Is  there  danger  of  over-education  ? 

(c)  What  effect  on  vocational  guidance  arises  out  of  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  the  imskilled  workers  ? 

3.  What  are  the  opportunities  for  promotion  and  career 
in  each  job? 

(a)  How  may  we  know  them  in  advance?  How  can  we  cata- 
logue or  write  the  specifications  of  an  occupation  or  a  job  ? 

(b)  What  are  employers,  employment  managers,  or  other 
executives  doing  for  vocational  guidance,  and  how  may  their 
activities  be  extended  ? 

(c)  WTiat  may  be  done  about  blind-alley  jobs?  How  can  the 
blind  alley  be  opened  and  made  to  lead  to  something  worth  while  ? 

4.  What  should  we  do  about  the  changing  from  job  to 
job  ?  Is  this  changing  educative  ?  How  may  it  be  properly 
supervised  ?  What  shall  be  done  about  misfits  and  re- 
adjustments ? 

5.  What  have  overwork,  misemployment,  unemploy- 
ment, and  poverty  among  workers  to  do  with  vocational 
guidance?  What  has  the  vocational  counselor  to  do  with 
them? 

6.  Are  social  service  (welfare  work)  and  scientific  man- 
agement for  the  benefit  of  the  workers  or  for  profit  or  for 
both  ?  What  may  be  done  to  improve  the  aims  and  methods 
of  such  work?    How  can  it  be  made  less  paternalistic? 


THE   PROBLEMS   OF   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  1 9 

7.  What  plans  are  being  followed,  or  may  be  followed, 
to  aid  the  unskilled  worker,  both  to  improve  his  earning 
ability,  and  to  develop  helpful  recreational  interests? 

8.  What  occupations  are  likely  to  have  increased  de- 
mands for  workers?  Which  are  likely  to  diminish  in  their 
demands  ? 

9.  Which  occupations  are  economically  and  socially  ad- 
vantageous, to  the  workers  and  to  the  community?  Which 
are  the  reverse?  What  should  the  vocational-guidance 
movement  do  about  such  occupations  ? 


CHAPTER  II 

Beginnings  in  Vocational  Guidance 

The  field  of  vocational  guidance  is  so  wide,  its  activities 
so  varied,  and  its  development  so  recent,  that  no  study 
can  include  all  the  present  plans  in  one  comprehensi\'e 
survey.  Many  schools  have  for  years  done  vocational 
counseling,  but  have  received  new  stimulus  and  aid  from 
the  interest  developed  by  Frank  Parsons  less  than  ten 
years  ago.  Our  purpose  in  this  chapter  is  to  present  and 
criticize  certain  typical  plans  actually  in  operation  at  the 
present  time.  This  examination  will  form  the  basis  both 
for  a  program  of  practices  which  have  been  tried  and 
found  helpful,  and  for  a  possible  statement  of  what 
remains  still  to  be  accomplished.  It  is  not  claimed  that 
the  plans  here  examined  are  the  best  that  can  be  found, 
but  that  they  fairly  represent  the  vocational-guidance 
movement  as  it  expresses  itself  to-day. 

Early  Recognition  of  the  Importance  of  Guidance.  — 
'It  is  as  difficult  to  trace  the  beginnings  of  vocational 
guidance  as  to  trace  the  discovery  of  the  use  of  steam. 
Who  did  the  most,  —  the  man  who  saw  the  need ,  the  one 
who  told  the  world  about  it,  or  the  one  who  took  the 
first  step  toward  the  solution  of  the  problem?  Many 
persons  have  appreciated  the  need  of  vocational  guidance 

20 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE 


21 


through  reading  Plato's  Republic,  and  yet  have  done 
nothing  to  work  out  any  plan.  In  1670,  Pascal  stated 
the  importance  of  a  wise  choice  of  occupation.  The 
introductory  statement  of  a  vocational-guidance  docu- 
ment published  in  England  in  1747  is  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  Bloomfield's  book,  Readings  in  Vocational 
Guidance.    In  1795  Henry  MacKenzie  wrote: 

Indeed,  the  education  of  your  youth  is  every  way  pre- 
posterous ;  you  waste  at  school  years  in  improving  talents, 
without  having  ever  discovered  them ;  one  promiscuous 
line  of  instruction  is  followed,  without  regard  to  genius, 
capacity,  or  probable  situation  in  the  commonwealth.  ^ 

Again,  all  the  cults  having  to  do  with  prediction  and 

prescription  —  the    astrologers,     the    palm    and    card 

readers,    the   phrenologists,    physiognomists,    mediums, 

and  seers  —  recognized  the  importance  of  and  were  con- 

|Cerned  with   vocational   adaptations.     Was  vocational 

guidance,  like  chemistry,  astronomy,  biology,  and  other 

Isciences,  born  in  pseudo-knowledge?    If  so,  we  must  be 

|alert  in  our  study  to  search  out  the  line  of  true  progress. 

In  1 88 1  a  little  book  was  published  which  can  perhaps 

:laim  to  be  the  first  book  wholly  devoted  to  the  actual 

bject  of  choosing  a  vocation.     It  is  a  curious  volume, 

'i\l  full  of  the  need  for  vocational  guidance  and  of  the 

to    be    rendered.     The    author,    Lysander    S. 

!>,  attempted  to  coin  the  word  "  Vocophy  "  for 

[(e  titl(      The  naive  point  of  view  is  shown  in  an  extract 

iom.  tho  preface : 

^  Man  of  Feeling,  p.  48. 


22  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

All  we  claim  to  perform  is  to  bring  order  out  of  chance 
and  chaos,  and  form  or  establish  a  system  to  enable  a  person 
to  find  the  most  fitting  pursuit  in  which  he  can  reap  the 
greatest  success  that  is  possible  for  him  individually  to  attain. 

The  book  does  nothing  more  than  to  point  the  need. 
Richards  favors  phrenology,  though  he  points  out  its  limi- 
tations. His  aim  was  to  have  expert  prescribers  in  each  city. 
He  made  little  provision  for  study  of  the  occupations,  and 
even  in  his  study  of  the  individual  he  tells  chiefly  what 
occupations  to  avoid  rather  than  what  to  follow. 

The  Beginning  of  Genuine  Vocational  Guidance.  — 
Frank  Parsons  is  justly  called  the  founder  of  the  voca- 
tional-guidance movement,  for  it  was  he  who  began  the 
work  which  has  led  to  the  present  spread  of  interest. 
Parsons  discarded  the  pseudo-sciences,  used  the  sys- 
tematic study  of  the  occupations,  and  was  sane  and 
painstaking  in  the  investigations  of  character  and 
abiHties  which  he  made.  Further,  he  wrote  about  his 
work,  and  thus  gave  to  the  followers  in  the  movement  an 
opportunity  to  build  on  his  gains.  His  book,  Choosing 
a  Vocation,  will  perhaps  have  a  permanent  place  in 
vocational-guidance  bibliographies.  Its  critics  recognize 
its  value ;  at  most  only  one  objection  to  the  method  can 
be  raised :  Parsons  was  a  bit  too  sure  in  his  conclusions 
—  too  prescriptive  in  what  he  told  the  individu.  .- 
consulted  him.^     It  should  be  noted  that  the  scop 

'     1  Bound  up  with  this  difficulty  is  the  further  fact  that  ^he   ' 
analysis"  plan  he  used  is  over-elaborated  and  dependent  uj    ;»  .. 
psychology.     His  emphasis  on  choosing  a  vocation  led  many  peop 
the  belief  that  this  is  the  sole  function  of  vocational  guidance. 


! 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  23 

the  work  and  of  the  book  is  limited :  guidance  in  the 
school,  placement,  and  follow-up  work,  and  guidance 
accompanying  employment  are  not  vital  parts  of  the 
plan.  The  guidance  Parsons  offered  was  intensive,  but  it 
did  not  extend  over  a  long  period  of  the  individual's  life. 
The  Civic  Ser\ice  House,  Boston,  in  which  Professor 
Parsons  began  his  counseling,  was  organized  in  1901  by 
Meyer  Bloomfield.  In  1903  Philip  Davis,  the  present 
director,  came  as  assistant.  They  became  interested  in 
the  writings,  social  outlook,  and  practical  aims  of  Parsons, 
and  under  his  direction  the  Breadwinners'  Institute 
was  organized.  This  work  with  immigrant  young  men 
and  women  brought  to  a  focus  all  Parsons'  latent  interest 
in  vocational  guidance,  and  steps  were  at  once  taken  to 
organize  a  vocation  bureau.  This  was  in  the  early 
weeks  of  1908.  On  April  23,  1908,  the  organization  of 
the  Vocation  Bureau  was  completed,  with  a  substantial 

[board  of  directors  as  sponsors  for  the  movement.     Mrs. 

iQuincy  A.  Shaw  (Pauline  Agassiz  Shaw),  who  aided 
many  other  progressive  educational  movements,  financed 

[the  work.  On  May  i,  Parsons  made  his  initial  report 
to  the  board.  Just  before  the  summer,  students  about 
to  graduate  from  an  evening  high  school  were  invited 
to  confer  with  Parsons,  and  considerable  counseling  was 

I  carried  on.     In  the  fall  he  continued  the  work  of  the 

Bureau,  at  the  Civic  Service  House,  and  also  gave  part 

of  his  time  to  similar  work  at  other  institutions.     Late  in 

the  same  year  (1908)  Parsons  died. 

V  '         rly  months  of  1909  plans  were  perfected 


24  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

for  reorganizing  and  carrying  on  the  bureau,  and  Bloom- 
field  assumed  charge  of  the  work  as  director.  At  first 
several  other  civic  organizations  cooperated  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  enterprise,  but  before  many  months  the  bureau 
attained  to  the  dignity  of  an  independent  institution. 
It  was  very  soon  after  this  time  that  the  bureau  was  asked 
to  begin  the  organization  of  the  work  in  the  Boston  city 
schools. 

It  was  from  these  beginnings  that  the  movement  for 
vocational  guidance  has  spread.  The  term  "  vocational 
guidance  "  is  new  —  during  the  few  years  since  1908  it 
has  assumed  nation-wide  significance.  We  shall  now 
turn  to  an  examination  of  the  activities  of  the  movement 
as  expressed  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  beginning 
with  Boston,  the  birthplace. 

The  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston :  Past  Activities.  — 
The  Boston  Vocation  Bureau  has  done  much  important 
work.  Among  its  activities  may  be  mentioned  the 
following : 

1.  Establishment  of  vocational  guidance  in  the  Boston 
schools,  and  of  training  courses  for  Boston  teachers. 

2.  Summer-school  courses  in  Harvard  University,  1911, 
1912,  and  1913  ;  and  in  the  University  of  CaUfornia,  1914  and 
191 5.  Courses  in  Indiana  University,  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Greeley,  Colorado;  year  courses  at  Boston  Uni- 
versity beginning  1913-14,  and  at  Teachers  College,  Col- 
umbia University,  beginning  1916-17. 

3.  Holding  of  First  National  Conference  on  Vocational 
Guidance,  in  cooperation  with  the  Boston  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, 1910. 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  25 

4.  Publication  of  The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth, 
1911. 

5.  Publication  of  pamphlets  and  books  on  trades,  busi- 
nesses, and  professions. 

6.  Investigation  of  vocational  guidance  in  Europe  and 
in  Porto  Rico,  and  publication  of  The  School  and  the  Start 
in  Life,  1914. 

7.  Organizing  of  the  Boston  Employment  Managers' 
Association,  191 1. 

8.  Publication  of  Youth,  School,  and  Vocation;  and  of 
Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance,  191 5. 

9.  Publication  of  Business  Employments,  and  The  Shoe 
Industry,  1916. 

10.  Correspondence,  conferences,  interviews,  lectures, 
as  noted  in  the  list  of  present  activities,  below. 

The  Present  Work  of  the  Bureau.  —  At  the  present 
time  the  Boston  bureau  is  not  primarily  engaged  in 
giving  vocational  counsel  to  individuals,  but  is  more 
especially  concerned  with  carrying  on  investigations, 
publishing  bulletins,  drawing  up  plans  for  schools  and 
school  systems,  and  in  others  ways  furthering  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  idea  of  guidance. 

The  duty  of  a  bureau  to  aid  teachers,  employers,  and 
school  directors  is  thus  stated  : 

It  is  the  special  business  of  a  vocation  bureau  to  organize 
that  conscious  and  continuous  service  which  takes  hold  of 
the  child  when  the  life-career  motive  has  been  awakened, 
and  helps  guide,  strengthen,  and  protect  it,  particularly 
through  the  transition  crisis  between  school  and  work.^ 

'  Bloomfield,  Youth,  etc.,  p.  47.  A  systematic  outline  of  the  aims  of 
the  bureau  is  given  on  page  39. 


26  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Following  is  a  partial  list  of  the  present  attempts  of  the 
Boston  Vocation  Bureau  to  be  of  service  in  this  field : 

1.  Correspondence  about  plans  and  policies. 

2.  Conference  with  persons  wishing  actual  guidance. 

3.  Conferences  with  school  people,  employers,  labor 
unions,  social  workers,  legislators. 

4.  A  course  in  Vocational  Guidance  at  Boston  Univer- 
sity and  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

5.  Lectures  by  the  director  and  assistant  director  for 
associations,  schools,  clubs,  etc. 

6.  Investigations  leading  to  publications  on  occupations. 

7.  Maintenance  of  a  library  of  material  on  vocational 
guidance  and  vocational  education,  open  to  the  public. 

8.  Conferences  with  and  aid  to  students  of  colleges  and 
universities  who  are  investigating  vocational-guidance. 

9.  Assistance  in  the  organization  and  direction  of  em- 
ployment managers'  associations,  in  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
San  Francisco,  and  New  York.     (See  p.  125.) 

10.  Assistance  in  planning  vocational-guidance  confer- 
ences and  conventions. 

11.  Organization  of  a  plan  for  vocational  help  to  minors, 
for  the  New  York  public  schools. 

Counseling  at  the  Boston  Bureau.  —  The  reason  the 
bureau  no  longer  aims  to  put  the  chief  emphasis  on  exten- 
sive counseling  of  individuals  is  expressed  as  follows  in 
the  191 5  report: 

The  Vocation  Bureau  believes  that  the  most  effective 
vocational  counseling  comes  through  close  association  with 
individuals  or  groups.  It  does  not  believe  that  as  a  rule 
stranger  can  well  counsel  stranger.  Therefore  one  main 
effort  of  the  Bureau  has  been  to  secure  the  appointment  and 


BEGINNINGS    IN    VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  27 

adequate  training  of  those  who  are  best  situated  for  the  right 
relationship  with  applicants  for  vocational  help. 

A  counselor  in  a  school  system  or  in  a  business  establish- 
ment is  in  a  good  position  not  only  to  observe  the  needs  and 
growth  of  an  individual  but  also  to  secure  cooperation  in 
judgment  and  personal  service  from  those  who  are  equally 
interested  in  a  particular  individual's  welfare. 

In  spite  of  this  policy  there  are  calls  at  the  bureau 
from  persons  wanting  counsel,  and  these  requests  are  not 
refused.  Many  come,  however,  for  aid  in  finding  work, 
and  in  such  cases  the  Bureau  can  only  refer  them  to 
other  organizations.  Applicants  for  advice  are  fre- 
quently counseled  to  seek  the  aid  of  responsible  people 
of  good  judgment  who  have  known  them  for  a  long  period 
of  time. 

The  following  tabulation  is  based  on  a  study  of  133 
case  cards  on  file  in  the  Vocation  Bureau.  They  were 
chosen  at  random,  and  are  only  a  portion  of  the  many 
cases  considered  by  the  bureau. 

Individual  Counsel 

133  sample  cases,  vocation  bureau  of  boston 

Sex :  Ages : 

Male 93       •  i2-i6 20 

Female 40          17-21 58 

Place:                                             22-25 18 

Boston 78          26-30 15 

Others  in  Massachu- 
setts     50          31-40 2 

Other  states      ...      5          41- 2 


28  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Education :  Emp].oyment : 

Through  elementary  .     22  Misemployed    ...     25 

In  high  school  ...     10  Want  advance  ...       5 

Through  high    ...     31  Want  work  ....      8 

In  college      ....       7  Want    advice    about 

Through  college     .     .       5  getting  work      .     .    49 

Had  plans  for  study  .     44 

Guidance  on  occupations  sought : 

Opportunities  in  specific  lines 17 

How  to  prepare  for  specific  occupations 22 

General  advice  about  choice 11 

Disposal  of  cases : 

Note.  —  Only  a  portion  of  the  133  cases  are  here  listed ; 
many  cards  do  not  bear  records  when  general  informa- 
tion was  given. 
Referred  to  employment  and  placement  agencies  .  .  34 
Referred  to  people  for  advice  on  opportunity  ...  13 
Referred  to  people  for  advice  on  preparation  ...11 
Referred  to  school  and  short  courses 8 

The  foregoing  tabulation  shows  that  many  persons 
have  the  impression  that  the  bureau  can  help  them  find 
work.  It  shows,  too,  that  there  is  a  need  for  sources 
of  advice  and  information  for  many  persons  far  beyond 
the  school  age. 

Requests  for  Counsel  by  Mail.  —  "  It  is  absolutely  im- 
possible to  give  any  vocational  counsel  by  mail.  Only 
harm  can  result  from  such  an  attempt."  This  is  a  sample 
answer  of  the  bureau  to  one  of  the  many  letters  re- 
questing advice.  Much  of  this  correspondence  came 
from  those  who  had  read  Parsons'  book,  and  some  was 
the  result  of  newspaper  misdirection.     For  example,  a 


BEGINNINGS    IN    VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  29 

Sunday  edition,  in  reporting  the  work  of  the  bureau, 
made  it  appear  that  advice  by  mail  was  given.  And 
an  efficiency  expert,  writing  in  a  well-known  magazine, 
was  guilty  of  this  statement :  "  If  you  want  to  know  what 
is  your  supreme  talent,  write  to  the  Vocation  Bureau  of 
Boston."  The  resulting  letters  are  pathetic  in  their 
appeal.  One  can  imagine  that  great  disappointment 
came  to  individuals  who  could  receive  no  answer  com- 
mensurate with  their  hopes. 

Following  is  a  tabulation  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
letters,  and  of  the  repHes  to  them  : 


Examination  of  the  "Case-Letter  File" 
vocation  bureau  of  boston 

I91I-I9IS 

Analysis  of  letters: 

Number  of  letters  examined 199 

Ask  information  on  finding  their  vocations  .     .     .     .  in 

Ask  how  to  study  for  specific  lines 24 

Ask  about  opportunity  in  specific  lines 31 

Ask  other  specific  questions  about  vocations    ...  11 

Request  interviews 17 

Request  an  examination  to  determine  vocation     .     .  8 

Offer  to  pay  for  information,  examination,  or  advice  18 

Relatives,  teachers,  or  friends  asking  about  others    .  31 

Teachers  asking  advice  for  school  counseling    ...  3 

Ask  how  to  become  a  counselor 7 

Ask  names  of  employers  for  work 9 

Ask  names  of  counselors  in  their  vicinity     ....  8 

Ask  for  literature 11 

Ask  general  questions  about  help  the  bureau  can  give  12 


30  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Analysis  of  replies: 

Told  that  advice  cannot  be  given  by  mail    .     .     .     .  loi 
Advised  to  see  Y.  M.  C.  A.  secretary,  school  people, 

settlement  workers,  etc io6 

Referred  to  schools  and  colleges  for  education  ...  15 

Specific  questions  answered 33 

Sent  reports  and  other  printed  matter 17 

Referred  to  literature 8 

Referred  to  firms  for  placement 6 

Told  to  come  for  an  interview •     .  14 

Told  that  no  interviews  were  immediately  possible   .  8 

Advised  to  drop  interest  in  phrenology 3 

Only  a  few  of  the  letters  told  about  the  education  or 
employment  of  the  writers :  thirty-four  said  that  they 
were  at  work  but  dissatisfied,  eight  that  they  were  in 
school,  eight  in  college,  and  sixteen  out  of  employment. 

The  letters  were  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  seven  were  from  foreign  countries.  Why  should  a 
boy  about  to  graduate  from  a  high  school  in  Iowa  write  to 
Boston  for  information  on  finding  his  occupation  ?  What 
are  the  resources  for  advice  open  to  a  man  of  46  who 
has  tried  several  occupations  with  indifferent  success? 
These  are  serious  questions  with  which  the  schools,  the 
city,  and  the  vocational-guidance  people  will  have  to 
concern  themselves. 

Occasional  letters  still  come  to  the  bureau  in  which  the 
problems  of  a  life  are  laid  bare,  and  while  schools  are 
inadequate  and  economic  conditions  crassly  competitive 
such  letters  are  likely  to  be  written  to  any  vocation 
bureau.    Since  the  reply  is  so  eagerly  expected  and  advice 


BEGINNINGS   IN  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  31 

SO  sorely  needed,  and  since  a  short  letter  may  seem 
brusque  and  is  always  disappointing,  it  seems  best  to 
have  a  printed  or  stenciled  form  which  can  be  sent  in 
reply,  in  case  it  is  not  possible  to  send  a  personal  note. 

Future  Plans  of  the  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston.  — 
The  reputation  of  the  Boston  bureau  has  been  carried 
far  beyond  the  borders  of  this  country,  and  the  thought 
of  vocational  guidance  has  gone  with  the  name.  Re- 
cently there  was  received  a  book  from  Uruguay  with 
translations  from  The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth,  and 
Chinese  pamphlets  on  vocational  education  have  referred 
to  the  bureau  and  its  work.  , 

At  the  present  time  two  important  lines  of  work  are 
being  undertaken  by  the  director  of  the  bureau,  Mr. 
Bloomfield  :  the  perfecting  of  plans  for  an  experiment  in 
vocational  help  in  three  New  York  schools  and  a  system- 
atic study  of  the  qualifications,  duties  and  opportunities 
of  the  employment  manager  (Chap.  IV).  The  director 
has  recently  given  two  courses  in  vocational  guidance  at 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

The  assistant  director,  Mr.  Frederick  J.  Allen,  is 
devoting  most  of  his  time  to  the  preparation  of  studies  of 
the  occupations.  His  book.  The  Shoe  Industry,  recently 
issued  by  the  bureau,  is  of  use  not  only  as  a  guide  to 
those  who  may  wish  to  enter,  and  to  intelligent  workers 
in  the  industry,  but  to  business  men  and  manufacturers 
as  well.  His  Business  Employments  aims  to  bring  up  to 
date,  enlarge,  and  reprint  the  various  studies  made  during 
the  past  six  years.     Allen  divides  the  occupational  field 


32  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

roughly  into  three  sections:  business,  trades,  and  pro- 
fessions. Business  Employments  aims  to  survey  the 
first  field  ;  The  Shoe  Industry  is  one  study  in  the  second ; 
and  The  Law  as  a  Vocation  represents  the  third.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  bureau  may  find  opportunity  to  survey 
the  last  two  fields  —  trades  and  professions  —  making 
three  excellent  texts  for  schools,  vocational  counselors, 
and  other  friends  of  youth. ^ 

Vocational-Guidance  Department,  Boston  Public 
Schools.  —  It  was  the  establishment  of  the  Boston 
Vocation  Bureau  which  led  to  the  work  of  vocational 
guidance  in  the  Boston  schools.  The  beginnings  were  ex- 
plained by  Superintendent  Brooks  at  the  first  vocational 
guidance  conference,  held  in  Boston  in  1910.^  Brooks's 
report  for  191 1  advocated  an  investigation  of  the  voca- 
tions of  the  community,  an  examination  of  the  school 
system,  work  with  parents  and  teachers,  and  follow-up. 
Committees  cooperated,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Vocation  Bureau,  many  meetings  were  held,  teachers 
giving  time  to  the  work,  men  drawn  directly  from  occupa- 
tions gave  explanations  of  their  field,  high  school  prin- 
cipals told  of  the  aims  and  methods  of  their  schools,  and 
later  district  conferences  were  held.     The  work  has  gone 

^  Through  a  plan  recently  consummated,  Mr.  Bloomfield  now  gives 
full  time  to  industrial  counseling,  particularly  in  relation  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  departments  of  employment  management.  The  Vocation 
Bureau,  now  called  The  Bureau  of  Vocational  Guidance,  is  under  charge 
of  the  Division  of  Education  and  the  Graduate  School  of  Business 
Administration,  Harvard  University,  and  Mr.  Roy  W.  Kelly,  Instructor 
in  Education,  is  the  director.  -  See  Readings,  pp.  83-91. 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  ^;^ 

on  continuously,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  counselors  in  the 
elementary  schools  have  done  their  work  without  any 
allowance  of  time  or  money.  The  191 6  survey  of  the 
schools  for  the  Finance  Commission  led  to  the  following 
statement : 

The  work  in  vocational  guidance  is  probably  as  well 
organized  and  administered  in  Boston  as  in  any  of  our  Ameri- 
can cities.  The  work  is  undoubtedly  of  much  value  and 
deserves  further  study. 

The  committee  believes  that  Boston  will  do  well  to  expand 
its  work  in  this  field  (Chap.  VI). 

The  Central  Office.  —  The  vocational  office,  in  charge 
of  the  direi:tor,  Miss  Susan  Girm,  aims  to  be  an  aid 
to  the  appointed  counselors  in  each  school.  These  local 
counselors  in  most  cases  do  the  actual  advising.  Assist- 
ants in  the  central  office  are  engaged  in  three  kinds  of 
work :  investigating  occupations,  giving  counsel  to  such 
students  and  working  children  as  call  at  the  office,  and 
aiding  in  the  placement  of  high  school  students  and 
graduates.^ 

Much  educational  guidance  is  carried  on  by  this 
department,  the  most  striking  evidence  of  which  was  the 

'  The  central  office  is  a  coordinating  force  to  draw  together  a  body  of 
information  about  practices  and  successes  throughout  the  city.  It  is  a 
clearing  house  for  experimentation,  methods,  and  ways  and  means.  A 
few  general  conferences  are  held,  and  frequent  district  conferences,  in 
which  high  and  elementary  school  teachers  exchange  points  of  \'iew, 
and  needs  of  particular  sections  of  the  city  are  discussed  and  investigated, 
and  typical  cases  needing  direction  arc  considered.  At  a  recent  meeting 
of  the  counselors,  there  were  present  about  300  teachers.  Such  a  meeting 
argues  well  for  the  interest  in  vocational  guidance  in  the  Boston  schools. 


34  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

Annual  Report  of  the  School  Committee  for  191 2.  This 
report  is  addressed  to  the  fathers  and  mothers  of  Boston, 
and  is  full  of  information  about  the  schools :  require- 
ments, diagrams,  pictures,  vocational  training,  suggest- 
ing courses,  special  classes,  etc.  Miss  Ginn  maintains 
that  with  high  school  attendance  assured,  the  problem 
of  the  vocational  counselors  in  the  elementary  schools 
is  concerned  chiefly  with  aiding  the  child  in  the  selection 
of  a  high  school  course.^ 

The  counselors  in  the  Boston  schools  have  used  the 
pamphlets  of  the  Boston  Vocation  Bureau,  and  many  of 
them  have  taken  the  training  course  conducted  by  Bloom- 
field,  either  in  the  classes  under  the  auspices  of  the  bureau 
and  the  school  committee  or  in  those  maintained  by 
Harvard  University  or  Boston  University.  The  work  of 
the  Vocation  Department  could  probably  be  made  more 
effective  as  a  clearing  house  of  information  on  guidance 
if  there  were  a  larger  Hbrary  at  the  central  office.  Each 
school  has  been  furnished  with  a  few  books  and  pamphlets 
on  occupations. 

The  Boston  plan  seems  to  lack  effective  centralization ; 
the  work  is. advisory  and  permissive.     Were  the  director 

^  It  is  to  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  this  selection  cannot  be  made 
with  intelligence  and  foresight  unless  the  child  has  discovered  his  bent 
or  probable  occupation,  and  this  for  many  is  impossible  at  this  age. 

It  is  the  plan  in  Boston,  as  soon  as  financial  conditions  can  be  met, 
to  give  time  allowance  to  counselors  in  the  grades,  so  that  their  work 
may  be  done  more  effectively.  This  was  announced  by  Assistant 
Superintendent  Thompson,  in  the  meeting  above  referred  to,  as  was 
also  the  fact  that  a  booklet  is  being  planned,  so  that  some  elementary 
statement  of  fact  and  policy  may  aid  the  counselor  in  the  work. 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  35 

able  to  require  definite  work  in  the  elementary  and  high 
schools,  especially  in  the  giving  of  vocational  information, 
better  results  might  be  expected.  Voluntary  work, 
nevertheless,  shows  interest,  and  a  good  foundation  for 
comprehensive  guidance  undoubtedly  exists. 

Guidance  in  the  Boston  High  Schools.  —  The  Voca- 
tional-Guidance Department  has  little  direct  control 
over  the  guidance  in  the  Boston  high  schools.  During 
the  closing  weeks  of  the  school  year  members  of  the  stafif 
personally  interview  each  member  of  the  graduating 
classes,  and  also  make  an  efifort  to  aid  in  placement. 
Aside  from  this  help,  however,  there  seems  to  be  no 
direction  given  to  high  school  work,  each  school  working 
out  its  own  plan.  In  most  of  the  schools  two  or  more 
teachers  are  allowed  part-time  for  counseling  individuals, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  committee  of  cooperation 
between  the  several  schools,  and  no  attempt  to  supervise 
the  work.  It  is  well  done  or  indifferently  done,  appar- 
ently, according  to  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  of  the 
individual  principal  or  counselor.  Much  profit  would 
undoubtedly  come  from  joint  action  in  setting  up  a 
program  of  minimum  requirement  for  vocational  guid- 
ance. 

In  the  schools  which  take  greatest  interest  in  guidance 
efficient  work  seems  to  be  done.  Superintendent  Brooks 
describes  the  work  as  it  stood  in  1910.^  Since  that  time 
there  has  been  a  growth  of  interest  and  effort,  and  the 
lectures,  vocational  talks,  care  in  selecting  high  schools, 

'  See  Readings,  p.  83. 


36  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

and  summer  and  part-time  work  have  been  continued 
and  extended.  A  recent  development  is  the  Monday 
and  Saturday  work  in  department  stores  by  girls  who 
are  in  the  last  year  of  high  school. 

Many  of  the  Boston  schools  make  systematic  efiforts 
to  find  places  for  their  graduates. 

Boston  System  Progressive.  —  The  Boston  work  and 
plans  are  commendable  and  promising.  Effort  is  made 
to  differentiate  the  school  program,  vocational  outlook 
is  widened  early  in  the  elementary  school,  advice  comes 
some  time  ahead  of  placement,  efforts  are  made  to  keep 
children  in  school,  an  attempt  is  made  to  safeguard 
the  critical  time  of  school  leaving,  placement  is  carefully 
done,  and  follow-up  is  provided  for.  Of  late  years  a 
corps  of  college  students  has  given  time  to  interviewing 
employers  for  the  department.  The  Boston  School 
Committee  holds  examinations  for  vocational  assistants 
—  clearly  a  step  in  advance. 

Before  the  Boston  system  can  be  said  to  have  an  ade- 
quate, city-wide  plan  for  guidance,  however,  it  would 
seem  necessary  to  work  out  a  set  of  minimum  essentials 
such  as  we  shall  discuss  at  a  later  place,  and  then  to 
provide  for  authoritative  supervision  of  the  effort  and 
accomplishment. 

Unguided  Foreigners  in  Boston.  —  One  of  the  guidance 
problems  yet  to  be  solved  in  Boston,  and  in  other  Ameri- 
can cities  as  well,  is  due  to  the  presence  of  foreigners  in 
the  schools,  particularly  in  the  night  schools.  It  is 
common   knowledge   among   settlement   workers   that 


BEGINNINGS   IN  VOCATIONAL    GUIDANCE  37 

adults  come  from  Italy  and  other  countries  equipped  with 
skilled  trades,  but  must  take  to  street  work,  peddling,  or 
farming  because  they  do  not  know  the  language  or  cannot 
get  work.  The  drift  of  foreigners  into  certain  unskilled 
trades  is  at  present  inevitable,  regardless  of  their  aims 
and  abiHties.  It  is  reported  that  the  girls  who  work  in 
one  of  the  Atlantic  Avenue  candy  factories,  looking  out 
of  the  window  at  an  incoming  liner  from  Italy,  remarked, 
"  Here  comes  another  load  of  chocolate  dippers."  These 
young  persons  must  attend  night  school  until  they  can 
speak  English,  and  this  would  seem  to  be  the  oppor- 
tunity for  vocational  guidance ;  but  thus  far  little  has 
been  done.  A  sympathetic  principal  —  one  who  believes 
in  the  races  he  is  trying  to  help  —  should  be  given  the 
resources  to  experiment  with  plans  for  meeting  this  need. 

The  guidance  in  the  Boston  continuation  school  and 
prevocational  centers  will  be  considered  in  Chapter  III. 

The  Grand  Rapids  Plan.  —  The  work  in  the  Boston 
schools  began  with  the  Vocation  Bureau,  and  thence  was 
transplanted  to  the  schools ;  that  in  Grand  Rapids  grew 
up  in  the  schoolroom  first  and  then  was  extended  and 
organized  in  a  central  office. 

The  work  in  Grand  Rapids  is  expounded  in  a  recent 
publication.^  This  book  is  an  invaluable  aid  to  English 
teachers,  for  it  shows  in  a  practical  way  how  written 
composition  may  be  used  to  develop  the  interests  of 
the  child  and  to  give  him  experience  in  and  knowledge  of 
the  problems  he  will  have  to  face.     The  plan  is  systemati- 

'  Davis,  Jesse  B.,  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance. 


38  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

cally  worked  out,  and  proceeds  step  by  step  through  the 
series  of  choices  that  the  normal  child  has  to  make  in  the 
course  of  his  education  and  economic  progress.  It  is 
the  result  of  conference  and  cooperation  on  the  part  of 
the  teachers  in  both  high  and  elementary  schools.^ 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  work  begins  in  a 
systematic  way  in  the  seventh  grade.  (We  shall  later 
show  the  reasons  for  an  earlier  start.)  It  seems  partic- 
ularly appropriate  that  the  eighth  grade  child  should 
study  the  value  of  further  education,  for  this  will  en- 
courage him  to  continue  study  even  if  he  cannot  attend 
the  high  school. 

The  Grand  Rapids  plan  is  very  thorough  in  English, 
and  since  the  publication  of  the  book  there  has  been  some 
extensive  development  in  the  vocational  use  of  the  other 
studies. 

The  ideals  back  of  the  activities  so  far  carried  on 
seem  sound,  and  the  aims  high.     No  narrow  conformity 

1  The  following  statement  of  general  aims  or  topics  for  each  grade  is 
of  interest : 

Seventh  Grade  :    Vocational  ambition. 

Eighth  Grade  :    The  value  of  education. 

Ninth  Grade  :    The  elements  of  character  that  make  for  success. 

Tenth  Grade :  The  world's  work  —  a  call  to  service- 
Eleventh  Grade :    Choosing  a  vocation. 

Twelfth  Grade  :    Preparation  for  one's  life  work. 

This  list  does  not  mean  that  the  child  is  asked  to  make  the  decisions 
indicated  at  exactly  the  time  each  topic  is  being  studied.  It  means 
simply  that  a  concentrated  attempt  is  made  to  set  the  chUd  thinking 
about  each  of  these  problems.  The  choice  of  a  vocation  may  not  come 
in  the  eleventh  grade ;  it  may  come  in  the  eighth  or  the  thirteenth.  But 
during  the  eleventh  grade  the  boy  or  girl  has  an  opportunity  to  survey 
and  check  up  the  factors  which  should  enter  into  that  choice. 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  39 

to  present  social  and  business  conditions  is  involved. 
Witness  Davis'  statement  on  needed  legislation  on  page 
162.  There  has  been  organized  in  Grand  Rapids,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Association  of  Commerce  of  that 
city,  a  Junior  Association  of  Commerce  which  gives  the 
_boys  of  the  high  school  an  opportunity  to  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  commerce  and  industry  of  the  city,  and  with 
the  men  engaged  in  these  occupations. 

The  chief  lessons  of  procedure  from  the  Grand  Rapids 
experiment  are  the  following:  use  the  studies  of  the 
school  program  to  aid  the  child  in  understanding  the 
vocational  world  and  in  making  his  choices  and  adjust- 
ments, lay  broad  foundations  for  the  vocational  bureau, 
and  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  moral  and  vocational 
interests  of  the  community  —  library,  school,  occupa- 
tion, and  commercial  associations. 

The  Grand  Rapids  plan,  like  that  of  Boston,  seems  still 
to  be  in  process  of  growth.  It  becomes  more  and  more 
apparent  that  vocational  guidance  can  become  a  satis- 
factory system  of  procedure  in  a  city  only  after  it  has 
been  developed  out  of  the  knowledge,  experiences,  and 
interests  of  the  individual  teachers.  Up  to  the  present 
time  no  large  city  has  succeeded  in  spreading  the  interest 
widely  enough  and  in  securing  adequate  funds  to  bring 
about  what  could  be  called  a  complete,  city-wide  plan 
of  vocational  guidance.  For  that,  teachers  must  be 
instructed  and  encouraged,  and  they  must  be  given  time 
in  the  daily  program  for  the  work.  Boston  and  Grand 
Rapids  have  gone  farther  than  any  other  cities.     Yet  the 


40  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

latter,  like  the  former,  seems  to  be  but  little  beyond  the 
voluntary  and  permissive  stage.  Cooperative  effort 
has  led  to  good  results  so  far ;  it  would  seem  proper  to 
take  a  new  step  in  the  near  future,  to  work  out  a  plan 
which  wUl  give  every  child  adequate  guidance,  and  to 
finance  and  closely  supervise  the  operation  of  the  scheme. 

The  Mishawaka  Plan.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
and  well-rounded  methods  of  guidance  so  far  described  in 
print  is  that  used  for  three  years  at  Mishawaka,  Ind., 
and  explained  in  the  School  Review  of  April,  1915.^ 

In  working  out  the  plan  the  teachers  of  the  high  school 
first  made  a  survey  in  the  light  of  which  the  high  school 
courses  were  improved.  Reading  lists,  assembly  talks, 
conferences  wdth  seniors  and  eighth  grade  pupils,  a 
course  on  vocations,  and  provision  for  placement,  are 
used  in  the  scheme.  Entering  students  are  well  cared  for, 
frequent  enrollment  blanks  give  vocational  clews,  and  a 
system  of  follow-up  work  gives  valuable  information. 

The  chief  virtue  of  this  plan  is  that  it  shows  how 
any  school  (or,  in  fact,  any  teacher)  may  make  a  safe  and 
effective  beginning  in  vocational  guidance. 

New  York  City.  —  The  High  School  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation of  New  York  City  has  interested  itself  in  voca- 
tional guidance  since  1908.  Investigations,  conferences 
with  graduating  pupils,  pamphlets,  and  provision  for 
placement  have  been  the  chief  kinds  of  work.  So  far, 
however,  there  has  been  no  central  bureau  ;  most  of  the 
work  has  been  carried  forward  by  voluntary  committees 

1  See  Horton. 


BEGINNINGS    IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  41 

and  at  the  individual  schools.  The  Central  Committee 
on  Vocational  Guidance  published  a  booklet  in  191 2, 
a,nd  in  the  same  year  held,  under  its  auspices,  the  Second 
National  Conference  on  Vocational  Guidance.  Although 
a  few  individuals  in  New  York  City  have  devoted  much 
time  and  energy  to  vocational  guidance,  it  cannot  be 
said  that  there  is  any  plan  for  the  city. 

In  the  Sixteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Schools  of  New  York  City,  191 5,  five  pages  are  devoted 
to  this  subject,  and  the  superintendent  recommends  a 
plan  for  the  city  resembling  that  for  Edinburgh  described 
in  Bloomfield's  The  School  and  the  Start  in  Life. 

_Puring  the  winter  of  1914-1915  Bloomfield  was  called 
to  New  York  for  part-time  investigations,  in  connection 
with  the  Mayor's  Committee  on  Vocational  Help  to 
Minors.  This  committee  investigated  the  school  history 
of  boys  and  girls  at  work,  the  social  environment  of  the 
children,  the  parent's  estimate  of  the  child's  problems 
and  progress,  the  employer's  viewpoint  about  the  chil- 
dren, and  the  opinions  of  the  children  themselves.  The 
investigation  was  extensive,  and  at  the  same  time  was 
conducted  with  care,  in  order  to  keep  close  to  actual 
individual  cases.  There  were  conferences  in  which  boys 
and  girls  answered  questions  directly  to  the  committee. 
The  results  of  the  investigation  have  not  yet  been  pub- 
lished. On  the  basis  of  the  investigations  made,  the 
committee  has  drawn  up  a  comprehensive  plan  for  voca- 
tional guidance  in  three  schools  in  Manhattan,  and  the 
Board  of  Superintendents  has  approved  the  project. 


42  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Somerville.  —  Twenty  teachers  in  Somerville,  Mass., 
made  preliminary  investigations  for  the  establishment 
of  a  plan  for  vocational  guidance.  It  has  been  found 
that  even  those  students  who  are  pursuing  relatively 
narrow  vocational  courses  in  the  high  school,  such  as  the 
commercial  courses,  are  not  at  all  sure  of  their  choice  of 
careers,  and  it  is  suspected  that  only  a  small  number  of 
graduates  are  following  the  work  for  which  they  were 
ostensibly  prepared  in  school.  The  committee  has 
investigated  dropping  out,  has  utiHzed  the  school's  plan 
whereby  each  pupil  in  high  school  selects  a  teacher  as 
an  adviser,  and  has  proposed  a  plan  for  systematic 
vocational  guidance.^ 

Beginnings  in  Chicago.  —  In  191 2  a  committee  on 
vocational  training,  of  the  Chicago  City  Club,  reported 
the  need  of  vocational  guidance.  As  early  as  1910 
some  work  in  guidance  had  been  begun  by  the  Chicago 
School  of  Civics  and  Philanthropy,  and  school  people 
became  interested.  In  1913  the  Board  of  Education 
gave  office  space  to  the  work,  and  all  children  appl}'ing 
for  employment  certificates  were  directed  to  consult  this 
bureau.  Thus  the  effort  has  been  from  the  first  to  aid 
those  coming  up  for  placement  or  for  certificates  to  begin 
work.  At  the  same  time,  however,  a  great  deal  of  good 
has  been  done  in  returning  children  to  school.  Industries 
in  Chicago  are  investigated,  bulletins  published,  place- 
ment is  put  on  a  high  plane,  and  children  are  followed  in 
their  occupations. 

^  See  Readings,  pp.  198-199. 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  43 

In  a  recent  survey  of  the  Chicago  schools  made  by 
the  Chicago  teachers,  two  committees  took  up  the  ques- 
tion of  vocational  guidance.  Both  recommended  a 
central  of&ce,  and  one  drew  up  a  comprehensive  plan  for 
the  work.  Early  in  1916  the  Board  of  Education  decided 
to  take  full  responsibility  for  the  central  bureau,  and 
progress  may  be  expected.^ 

Work  in  Other  Cities.  —  Buffalo  and  Los  Angeles, 
through  the  school  authorities  or  through  committees  of 
teachers,  have  issued  lists  of  occupations  open  to  young 
people.  In  one  of  the  Los  Angeles  high  schools  voca- 
tional conferences  were  arranged  by  teachers  in  the 
English  department,  but  no  serious  attempt  was  made  to 
prepare  these  teachers  for  the  work  of  counseling.  Some 
investigation  has  been  made  in  both  cities,  and  in  Los 
Angeles  a  useful  bulletin  was  issued  to  post  in  the 
schools,  showing  what  kinds  of  courses  are  given  in 
each  of  the  high  schools,  and  to  what  occupations  these 
courses  lead. 

Rochester  has  collected  information  about  working 
girls,  and  used  it  to  improve  the  school  program  of 
studies.^  Bulletins  on  occupations  have  been  issued. 
De  Kalb,  111.,  has  instituted  a  very  suggestive  system  of 
guidance.^  Newton,  Mass.,  has  organized  a  plan  con- 
nected   with    the    work-certificate    office."*      Cincinnati, 

'  For  Chicago  references  see  :  Proc.  of  Nat.  Conference,  191 2,  pp.  14- 
18;  Nat.  V.  G.  Assn.,  1913,  pp.  59-64,  86-89;  i9i4)  PP-  5i~56;  Read- 
ings, 542-556;  60th  Report  Chicago  Schools,  pp.  341-355- 

*  See  Fletcher.  '  See  Giles. 

*  See  Bloomfield's  Youth,  etc.,  p.  53. 


44  ,THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

Milwaukee,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston  are  carrying 
on  guidance  in  connection  with  continuation  schools. 
The  Los  Angeles,  Berkeley,  and  Rochester  intermediate 
schools,  and  the  Gary  plan,  at  Gary,  Troy,  and  New 
York  City,  provide  differentiated  courses  in  which  chil- 
dren can  discover  their  talents  and  aptitudes.  Oakland, 
San  Jose,  and  hundreds  of  other  cities,  are  doing  active 
guidance  work  in  the  high  schools.  Both  the  Oakland 
Technical  High  School  and  the  San  Jose  High  School 
have  done  pioneer  work  in  organizing  Ufe-career  classes, 
—  school  groups  for  the  study  of  the  occupations.^ 
The  life-career  or  occupations  class  seems  to  have  been 
originated  by  Mr.  Wheatley,  almost  as  soon  as  Parsons 
began  his  work.^ 

Long  Beach,  Cal.,  High  School  offers  credit  for  the 
continued  study  of  one's  vocational  problems.  A  variety 
of  exercises  is  included  in  the  study. 

The  January,  1916,  bulletin  of  the  National  Vocational 
Guidance  Association  prints  a  Hst  of  over  1 50  high  schools 
which  claim  to  have  made  beginnings. 

Guidance  in  Colleges.  —  No  systematic  canvass  of  the 
guidance  work  of  the  colleges  seems  to  have  been  pub- 
lished. The  following  notes  wUl  serve  to  indicate  some 
of  the  work  undertaken. 

Wisconsin  University  holds  annual  conferences  of 
women  students,  and  the  dean  of  women  holds  daily  office 
hours  for  counsel.     The  character  of  the  work  is  reported 

^  See  Jacobs. 

2  See  Wheatley,  and  Gowin  and  WTieatley,  bibliography. 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  45 

in  the  Vocational-Guidance  Bulletin,  of  November,  191 5. 
In  the  same  bulletin  is  a  short  report  of  the  guidance 
at  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute.  There  is  provision 
in  the  institute  for  men  to  discover  that  they  are  not 
fitted  to  be  engineers,  without  the  traditional  humiliation 
of  failure  in  studies. 

Vocational  conferences  for  women  students  of  the 
State  College  of  Washington  are  discussed  in  the  Decem- 
ber, 191 5,  Vocatiofial-Guidance  Bulletin.  Special  stress 
is  given  to  occupations  other  than  teaching.  The 
Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union  of  Boston, 
through  its  appointment  bureau,  has  held  conferences 
with  women  students  of  several  colleges.  The  University 
of  Minnesota  has  a  faculty  committee  on  vocational 
guidance  for  women,  and  for  the  year  191 7-19 18  a 
vocational  adviser  for  women  has  been  appointed. 

One  of  the  most  systematic  efforts  to  give  educational 
guidance  in  a  higher  institution  is  that  undertaken  at 
Reed  College  in  the  freshman  course  called  College 
Life.  Among  the  topics  included  in  this  course  are  the 
following :  the  purpose  of  the  college ;  selection  of 
courses  ;  principles  and  methods  of  study ;  the  use  of  the 
library ;  student  honesty ;  general  reading  and  mental 
recreation  ;  health  ;  athletics  ;  the  relation  of  the  college 
to  the  community ;  the  choice  of  a  vocation.  Various 
members  of  the  faculty  contribute  to  the  course. 

College  Courses  in  Vocational  Guidance.  —  A  recent 
article  ^  on  college  departments  of  education  names  the 

^  See  Bolton. 


46  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

following  colleges  as  conducting  courses  on  vocational 
guidance :  Chicago,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Washington, 
and  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University.  To 
these  must  be  added  courses  in  Boston  University,  the 
University  of  California  and  Harvard  University,  besides 
summer-school  courses  in  several  other  colleges.  Los 
Angeles  State  Normal  School  is  conducting  a  course  for 
teachers  in  service.  Without  doubt  many  other  colleges 
are  giving  full  courses,  and  certainly  all  departments  of 
education  have  courses  in  which  the  subject  forms  at 
least  a  part  of  the  work. 

Courses  for  Employment  Managers.  —  During  the 
past  two  years  the  Tuck  School  of  Administration  and 
Finance,  the  business  division  of  Dartmouth  College, 
has  given  a  course  to  train  men  for  the  duties  of  the 
employment  manager.  The  Warton  School  of  Finance 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  has  organized  similar 
work. 

Guidance  through  Other  Agencies.  —  What  resources 
are  there  for  vocational  advice,  for  a  person  who  is  not 
a  student  at  a  school  or  college  ?  The  Vocation  Bureau 
of  Boston  has  had  to  face  this  question  in  answering 
letters  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  most  cases 
there  is  no  satisfactory  solution ;  in  few  cities  are  there 
agencies  whose  business  it  is  to  give  the  misemployed 
worker  the  systematic  counsel  required  to  help  him. 

Guidance  by  Religious  Organizations.  —  The  Young 
Men's  and  Young  Women's  Christian  Associations  have 
general,  educational,  or  employment  secretaries  who  can 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL    GUIDANCE  (47, 

give  counsel  to  their  members,  and  these  officers  fre- 
quently accommodate  nonmembers  too.  But  it  is  not 
an  easy  thing  for  a  person  unfamiliar  with  the  organiza- 
tion to  bring  himself  to  approach  these  busy  officials. 
Besides,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  can  aid  a  stranger  greatly 
in  one  or  two  conferences.  For  their  own  members, 
however,  these  associations  do  good  work  in  vocational 
guidance,  in  spite  of  the  occasional  tendency  to  over- 
emphasize character  analysis.^  The  Boston,  Buffalo, 
and  New  York  associations  have  given  counsel  to 
thousands  of  young  men. 

Pastors  of  churches,  writers,  lecturers,  teachers, 
and  superintendents  of  schools  are  often  appealed  to  by 
strangers  needing  vocational  help. 

Guidance  through  Governmental  Projects.  —  A 
searching  investigation  into  the  many  activities  of  the 
departments  of  the  national  government  would  disclose 
a  large  amount  of  vocational  guidance.  Much  of  it  is 
impersonal,  in  the  way  of  bulletins,  agricultural  reports, 
civil  service  manuals,  and  other  documents :  these  are 
studied  by  many  persons  needing  vocational  advice. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  experiments  in  guidance 
was  the  summer  camp  organized  in  191 5  by  the  Rec- 
reation League  of  San  Francisco,  and  conducted  by 
Forestry-Service  officials  of  the  national  government. 
Twenty  boys  were  given  three  weeks  of  strenuous  life 
in  the  woods,  and  under  the  direction  of  experienced 
rangers  had  actual  practice  in  the  duties  of  a  forester, 

1  See  Davis'  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance,  pp.  262-272. 


48  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

from  cooking  and  heliographing  to  putting  out  a  fire  a 
mile  in  length. 

The  work  done  by  the  Canadian  and  Australian  govern- 
ments, in  financing  men  who  wish  to  become  farmers,  is 
a  practical  kind  of  vocational  guidance.  The  Home- 
stead Commission  of  Massachusetts  has  repeatedly  asked 
the  legislature  for  funds  to  begin  similar  work,  and  a 
beginning  is  about  to  be  made. 

Work  by  Clubs,  Settlements,  and  Libraries.  —  The 
need  for  vocational  counsel  is  appreciated  by  every 
settlement  worker,  and  guidance  is  a  more  or  less  im- 
portant part  of  the  program  of  every  such  institution. 
The  Henry  Street  Settlement  of  New  York  City,  through 
its  Vocational  Scholarship  Committee,  gives  girls  who 
would  otherwise  go  into  unskilled  trades  two  extra 
years  of  schooling,  and  thus  helps  them  to  obtain  skilled 
work.^ 

Public  Ubraries  were  among  the  first  institutions  to 
understand  the  need  for  vocational  guidance,  and  the 
lists  of  books,  issued  by  the  Brooklyn  and  Grand  Rapids 
libraries,  have  been  of  great  use  to  teachers  and  coun- 
selors. Miss  Hall's  paper,  reproduced  in  Davis' 
Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance,  gives  a  general  state- 
ment of  what  has  been  and  may  be  done.^ 

Guidance  through  Placement.  Placement  in  School 
Departments.  —  In  a  later  chapter  we  shall  discuss  the 
advantages    and    disadvantages    of    guidance    through 

^  See  Readings,  p.  322 ;  also  Nat.  Voc.  Gjtidame  Assn.,  1914,  pp.  59-61. 
*  See  also  Bloomfield,  Youth,  etc.,  p.  7. 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  49 

placement  (Chapter  IV).  We  shall  here  note  t>pical 
organizations  for  such  work.  We  have  already  spoken 
of  the  Placement  Bureau  of  Boston,  which  is  now 
connected  with  the  school  system.  Rochester,  N.Y., 
and  Lincoln,  Neb.,^  have  placement  bureaus  which  have 
induced  certain  employers  to  obtain  all  their  help  under 
eighteen  years  of  age  through  the  bureaus. 

Portland,  Ore.,  maintained  a  suTximer-employment 
oflSce,  under  the  supervision  of  the  school  board.  High 
schools  in  many  cities  aid  in  placing  their  students. 

Business  Organizations.  —  Commercial  associations 
have  frequently  used  the  term  vocational  guidance  to 
apply  to  plans  for  placement  organized  under  their 
auspices.  Doubtless  some  guidance  is  given  in  con- 
nection with  the  placement.  The  subcommittee  on 
industrial  education  and  vocational  guidance  of  the 
Chicago  Association  of  Commerce  has  maintained  a 
placement  service  since  1913.  This  subcommittee 
cooperates  with  the  schools,  aids  in  the  effort  to  hold 
the  child  in  school  as  long  as  possible,  consults  with 
parents,  studies  the  aptitudes  of  the  child,  places  him 
advantageously,  and  maintains  a  "  follow-up  "  service. 

Other  Appointment  Agencies.  —  Among  other  place- 
ment organizations  which  interest  themselves  in  voca- 
tional guidance  are  the  numerous  associations  for  aiding 
college  women  to  obtain  emplo>Tnent.  The  Inter- 
collegiate Bureau  of  Occupations,  New  York  City,  is 
the  best  known  example.     Other  such  agencies  exist  in 

^  See  Leavitt,  Dec,  19 15. 


5©  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh,  Chicago,  and  Los  Angeles. 
Much  helpful  guidance  is  furnished  by  these  bureaus. 
The  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  of 
Boston,  maintains  an  appointment  bureau  which  gives 
vocational  advice,  and  conducts  short-term  classes  in 
certain  occupations.  A  course  in  photography  was 
recently  given.  A  library  on  vocations  for  women  is 
maintained.  The  Union  has  for  the  past  two  years  con- 
ducted a  class  in  vocational  guidance. 

Most  colleges  maintain  appointment  ofi&ces,  and  some 
of  these  have  developed  great  efi&ciency.  Their  particular 
concern  is  to  help  graduates  obtain  teaching  positions, 
but  their  work  is  by  no  means  confined  to  this  occupation. 

Vocational  Guidance  in  Foreign  School  Systems.  — 
The  European  experiments  in  vocational  guidance  have 
been  discussed  at  length  by  Bloomfield  in  The  School 
and  the  Start  in  Life.  Some  of  the  salient  characteristics 
from  which  American  cities  may  learn,  are  these :  the 
publication  of  brief,  helpful  books  for  youth  and  parents, 
giving  vocational  information  about  each  of  many  occu- 
pations ;  progress  in  health  guidance,  particularly  in 
preventing  injurious  labor  on  the  part  of  young  people ; 
the  organization  of  large  voluntary  committees  for 
guidance  of  working  children  and  youth.  The  needs 
growing  out  of  the  war  have  led  to  many  new  adaptations 
of  the  work  of  guidance  in  foreign  countries. 

Summary.  —  The  plans  discussed  in  this  chapter  will 
indicate  the  nature  of  the  work  so  far  attempted ;  they 
cannot  indicate  its  geographical  extent.     Our  survey 


BEGINNINGS   IN   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  51 

shows  that  there  has  been  an  eJEfective  start  in  many 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  country;  that  many  of 
these  efforts  have  been  preceded  by  a  study  of  the  occu- 
pational opportunities ;  that  in  each  of  a  few  cities  there 
is  a  central  vocational  bureau ;  that  the  colleges  are 
interesting  themselves  in  the  movement ;  that  religious 
associations,  governmental  offices,  clubs,  settlements, 
and  libraries  have  aided  in  the  work  of  guidance ;  and 
that  there  are  many  appointment  agencies  which  make 
an  effort  to  give  vocational  guidance  in  connection  with 
placement.  We  know,  too,  that  at  the  present  moment 
many  American  cities  are  laying  plans  for  inaugurating 
systematic  vocational  guidance. 

The  chief  defects  in  the  efforts  for  vocational  guidance 
so  far  made  are  of  two  classes,  and  grow  out  of  two  causes. 
In  the  first  group  are  those  plans  which  are  inadequate 
mainly  on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  have  not  yet 
reached  maturity.  In  most  of  their  characteristics  these 
are  commendable  so  far  as  they  go,  and  their  present  rate 
of  growth  is  healthy  and  hopeful.  In  the  second  group 
are  those  plans  which  have  set  up  the  placement  activity, 
or  have  failed  to  put  the  guidance  work  where  it  obviously 
belongs,  —  in  the  school  department.  In  most  cases, 
apparently,  satisfactory  development  can  hardly  be 
expected  without  a  reorganization  of  those  plans. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  men  and  women  in  charge 
of  the  work  in  the  first  group,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able 
to  observe,  that  they  recognize  the  limitations  of  their 
work,  and  are  endeavoring  to  extend  it  as  an  educational 


52  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

activity.  Those  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  other  plans, 
however,  are  more  apt  to  look  for  immediate  ends,  and  to 
fail  to  grasp  the  real  need  for  offering  vocational  informa- 
tion and  guidance  long  before  the  child  is  ready  to  leave 
school. 

We  shall  now  turn  to  the  methods  used  in  guidance. 
In  the  next  chapter  we  shall  consider  the  method  of  giving 
vocational  guidance  through  educational  guidance;  in 
the  fourth  chapter  we  shall  attempt  to  evaluate  some 
other  methods  of  counsel. 


CHAPTER  III 

Vocational  Guidance  through  Educational 

Guidance 

That  educational  guidance  is  of  prime  importance  is 
shown  in  the  history  of  an  actual  case.  The  person 
concerned  was  the  son  of  a  mechanic  with  a  large  family, 
and  early  found  it  necessary  to  aid  in  increasing  the 
family  income.  Two  summers  and  one  or  two  holiday 
seasons  he  served  as  cash  boy  in  a  department  store. 
After  school  and  Saturdays,  during  much  of  the  time  he 
was  in  elementary  and  high  school,  he  worked  as  helper 
in  his  father's  carpenter  shop,  and  as  helper  and  clerk 
in  a  paint  store.  A  year  out  of  his  college  course  was 
spent  in  a  grocery  store.  During  all  of  this  time  he 
received  absolutely  no  counsel  of  a  definite  or  conscious 
kind  about  the  work  he  was  doing,  save  the  instructions 
of  the  persons  for  whom  he  worked.  Nor  did  he  make 
any  choice  of  vocation  in  this  period.  On  the  other 
hand,  however,  he  did  have  educational  guidance,  from 
sister  and  teachers,  as  a  result  of  which  he  was  influenced 
to  make  the  effort  to  begin  and  to  complete  his  college 
education.     In  the  course  of  time  he  became  a  teacher. 

It  is  apparent  that  narrow  vocational  guidance  with- 
out any  educational  viewpoint  might  have  been  a  stum- 

53 


54  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

bling-block  in  this  boy's  way.  In  Chapter  V  we  shall 
discuss  the  danger  in  the  immediate  kind  of  counsel 
which  attempts  to  sort  out  children  twelve  years  old  into 
"  thing-thinkers  "  and  "  idea-thinkers,"  and  thereupon 
to  narrow  their  educational  opportunity.  In  the  present 
chapter  we  shall  inquire  how  the  school  can  widen  the 
vocational  horizon  of  the  pupil,  aid  him  to  make  an  in- 
telligent choice,  and  advise  him  concerning  hisjprepara- 
tion.  It  will  be  evident,  as  wej)roceed,  that  a  wide 
outlook  and  a  fixed  desire  for  education  will  often  rele- 
gate present  jobs  to  their  proper  place,  as  temporary 
and  never  more  than  experimental. 

We  are  to  deal  in  this  chapter  with  methods  of  voca- 
tional guidance  as  exempHfied  in  educational  guidance. 
We  shall  be  concerned  with  the  following  main  topics : 
(i)  The  child's  place  in  the  school;  (2)  School  organi- 
zation as  related  to  guidance ;  (3)  Possibilities  for 
guidance  in  the  school  program ;  (4)  Possibilities  for 
guidance  in  the  association  of  students  with  each  other ; 
(5)  The  prevocational  and  continuation  schools  as  in- 
struments of  self -disco  very ;  (6)  Definite  preparation 
for  the  occupation ;  (7)  The  development  of  good 
traits  of  character. 

The  Child's  Place  in  the  School.  —  Why  does  the  child 
go  to  school?  Let  us  attempt  to  answer  this  question, 
in  the  Hght  of  vocational  guidance,  first  prefacing  our 
study  with  a  reference  to  the  early  play  of  children. 

Breadth  of  Experience  through  Earliest  Play.  —  The 
purpose  of  play  in  the  child's  life  seems  to  be  to  enable 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  55 

him  to  understand  his  world  and  to  develop  qualities 
that  shall  enable  him  to  take  his  place  in  that  world  ; 
it  provides  a  tool  through  which  he  experiments  and  dis- 
covers the  existence  and  methods  of  operation  of  mate- 
rials, forces,  and  mental  qualities.  Apparently  there 
can  be  no  superstructure  of  educational  guidance  with- 
out the  foundation  laid  by  the  child  in  his  play. 

Perhaps  the  chief  way  the  young  child  begins  to  ac- 
quaint himself  with  the  world  is  through  dramatiza- 
tion. Joseph  Lee  has  the  dramatic  age  beginning  at 
three,  and  among  the  first  dramatizations  of  children 
are  those  which  concern  occupations.  Let  the  postman 
or  a  plumber  call,  and  the  moment  he  goes  the  play 
begins.  By  entering  into  the  fun  —  Mr.  Lee  shows  that 
it  is  the  child's  most  serious  business  —  the  parent  can 
signally  augment  the  educational  effect.  The  trac- 
table adult  will  find  that  the  dramatization  has  elabo- 
rate and  exact  details,  and  will  observe  a  growing  sense 
of  satisfaction  and  consciousness  of  success  on  the  part 
of  the  child.i 

'  The  vocational  counselor  must  remember  that  this  play  is  not  for 
finding  clews  which  point  toward  the  occupation.  Lee  sets  fourteen 
years  as  the  earliest  age  at  which  vocational  clews  manifest  themselves 
and  states  that  in  many  cases  none  present  themselves  until  much  later. 
He  says: 

"And  the  first  form  of  an  instinct  may  be  very  different  from  that 
which  it  is  destined  finally  to  assume  —  a  fact  not  yet  recognized,  even 
in  this  day  of  the  apotheosis  of  evolution,  by  those  educators,  who,  in 
their  zeal  for  what  they  deem  the  practical,  insist  on  pinning  the  fruit 
to  the  first  sprout  that  appears  above  the  ground.  .  .  .  Indeed  there 
is  almost  a  presumption  that  the  spiritual  force  developing  in  any  given 
play  will  not,  in  adult  life,  appear  in  anything  resembling  its  present 


56  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

The  working  out  of  these  dramatic  situations  in  his 
play  at  home  and  the  assumption  of  various  personahties, 
give  the  child  an  important  preliminary  experience, 
which  becomes  the  mental  equipment  with  which  he 
later  enters  the  school.  Without  doubt  the  compHcated 
world  of  occupations  discussed  in  his  readers  and  his 
geographies  will  be  better  understood  on  account  of 
the  lessons  learned  in  early  play.  Since  an  intelhgent 
choice  of  vocation  demands  a  broad  vision  of  the  field 
of  occupations,  the  importance  of  this  early  dramatiza- 
tion is  at  once  evident. 

Aside  from  this  form  of  growth  through  dramatiza- 
tion, the  child's  play  before  the  school  age  should  give 
him  social  contact  and  power  of  getting  on  with  other 
children,  and  the  habit  of  self-dependence  and  success 
in  carrying  out  his  legitimate  purposes. 

If  play  can  be  made  to  teach  these  lessons,  the  founda- 
tions for  educational  and  vocational  guidance  will  be 
well  laid  by  the  time  the  child  reaches  the  school  age. 

How  Schools  Guide  the  Child.  —  Let  us  now  turn  to 
the  school  age,  and  consider  first  this  question :  How 
should  the  schools  be  organized  and  managed,  for  effec- 
tive vocational  guidance  ? 

Educational  institutions  are  organized  to  continue 
the  lessons  gained  through  systematic,  serious  play  — 
to  provide  experiences  useful  to  the  individual  and  to 

form.  If  it  looks  like  a  rose  now  it  may  develop  into  something  very 
beautiful,  but  the  chances  are  that  it  will  not  be  a  rose."  (Lee,  Play 
in  Education,  pp.  63-64.) 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  57 

society.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  furnish  an 
environment  in  which  the  pupils  solve  problems.  The 
good  school  furnishes  a  sampling  of  life's  worth-while 
experiences.  This  requires  both  manual  and  mental 
exercises  —  a  combination  of  study  and  work  —  and 
the  free  play  of  the  child's  instincts.  As  Johnson  per- 
tinently says  in  reference  to  the  serious  purposes  of  the 
school,  as  related  to  the  child's  interest  in  play : 

The  efficient  method  is  and  must  always  be,  in  the  nature 
of  the  case,  from  interests,  activities,  and  achievements, 
to  subject  matter  and  not  the  reverse.  The  problem  of 
elementary  education  is  not  to  put  play  into  the  curriculum, 
but  rather  to  put  the  curriculum  into  play.^ 

Let  us  see  how  the  methods  of  teaching,  the  plans 
of  organization,  and  school  studies  can  be  made  to 
serve  these  principles,  and  how  the  vocational  interests 
of  the  child  may  be  given  appropriate  consideration  and 
development. 

Methods  of  Teaching  should  early  be  related  to  Voca- 
tions.—  The  principle  of  beginning  with  the  child  is 
making  headway  in  the  organization  of  many  schools. 
The  designation  of  certain  types  of  schools  as  "  hfe- 
saving  stations "  and  of  others  as  "self -disco very 
schools  "  shows  the  attention  being  paid  to  the  child  by 
the  modern  teacher.  Dewey's  Schools  of  To-morrow, 
and  Burk's  In  Re  Everychild  vs.  Lockstep  Schooling 
show  the  progressive  teacher  how  the  work  of  moving 
the  focus  of  attention  may  be  carried  on.  True  educa- 
^  Johnson,  The  Place  of  Flay,  etc.,  p.  5. 


58  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

tional  guidance  is  impossible  to  the  teacher  who  sees 
the  subject  before  he  sees  the  child. 

The  child  and  his  needs  must  be  the  teacher's  point 
of  view,  and  vocational  needs  are  not  to  be  lost  sight  of. 
Beginning  with  the  fifth  grade,  at  the  very  least,  the 
child  should  occasionally  be  regarded  as  one  who  will 
ultimately  have  an  occupation  in  hfe,  and  as  one  who 
will  sooner  or  later  have  to  make  his  choice.  We  may 
well  be  generous  in  the  breadth  of  experience  in  play 
and  work  in  the  kindergarten  and  the  early  grades  in 
consonance  with  the  thought  that  vocational  outlook 
(as  well  as  many  other  good  things)  comes  from  such 
experience.  Nor  need  we  narrow  the  scope  of  experience 
in  holding  that  definite  preparation  for  choice  of  occupa- 
tion should  find  a  place  in  the  school  plan  from  the  fifth 
year  on.  Indeed  as  Eliot  maintains,^  habits  of  listless- 
ness  toward  studies,  and  laziness,  too,  may  arise  from 
failure  to  appeal  to  the  "  life-career  motive." 

School  Organization  as  Related  to  Guidance.  —  The 
development  of  men  and  women  is  the  purpose  of  the 
school,  and  the  selection  of  and  preparation  for  the 
occupation  is  one  of  the  important  features  in  this  devel- 
opment. The  schools  must  therefore  be  organized  with 
the  vocational  guidance  of  the  child  as  one  of  the  aims 
in  mind. 

Elementary-School  Organization  for  Educational  Guid- 
ance. —  WTiat  organization  shall  school  board,  super- 
intendent, and  principal  give  to  the  first  six  grades  of 

*  Readings,  p.  i. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  59 

the  elementary  school,  if  that  school  is  to  carry  out  its 
vocational-guidance  purpose?  In  Chapter  II,  Stan- 
dards in  Education,  of  Hanus's  School  Efficiency,  the 
whole  question  of  aims  and  elements  of  organization  is 
tersely  discussed.  Unity  of  aim  has  more  place  in  these 
lower  grades,  though  there  must  be  provision  for  flexi- 
bility in  the  rate  of  promotions,  and  for  special  classes 
and  special  schools  whenever  needed. 

The  work  of  the  first  six  grades  may  comprise  reading, 
writing,  effective  speaking,  simple  computation,  con- 
struction of  simple  articles  out  of  paper,  wood,  and  clay, 
the  domestic  arts,  singing,  drawing,  games,  dramatics, 
and  stories  of  history.^  Geography,  chiefly  concerned 
with  occupational  opportunities,  may  begin  with  the 
fourth  grade.  All  of  the  work  of  the  first  six  grades 
may  be  called  vocational  in  that  both  the  so-called 
tools  of  knowledge,  and  the  breadth  of  experience  de- 
rived from  the  other  studies  are  essential  to  success 
in  the  occupation. 

Differentiation  in  the  Intermediate  Age.  —  Beginning 
with  the  sixth  or  seventh  grade  there  must  be  provision 
for  differentiation.  Many  American  cities  have  made 
significant  strides  in  the  improvement  of  the  upper 
elementary  grades.  Los  Angeles  has  eleven  interme- 
diate or  junior  high  schools  which  take  children  upon  the 
completion  of  the  sixth  grade,  offer  them  the  choice  of 

'  For  excellent  suggestions  to  show  how  play  and  manual  work  can 
widen  the  knowledge  of  occupations  in  the  early  grades,  see  Parsons, 
Plays  and  Games,  and  Dopp,  The  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Edu- 
cation. 


6o  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

many  studies  and  provide  secondary  school  methods, 
special  teachers,  and  several  studies  formerly  taught 
only  in  the  high  school.  Boston  has  provided  "  pre- 
vocational  centers,"  to  which  are  admitted  those  boys 
and  girls  who  might  drop  out  if  forced  through  the 
regulation  routine.  Many  cities  have  experimented 
with  the  "  transfer  class,"  an  attempt  to  help  pupils 
who  have  reached  the  high  school  age  but  have  failed 
to  complete  the  elementary  school.  And  many  cities 
have  seized  the  opportunity  for  schooling  adapted  to 
the  blind,  the  dumb,  the  backward.  Several  progres- 
sive school  systems  in  the  country  have  been  influenced 
b}'  these  recent  changes.^ 

Besides  the  improvement  of  the  upper  grades,  the 
organization  of  continuation  schools  gives  promise  of 
our  realizing  the  ideal  that  before  long  our  young  people 
will  never  entirely  "  quit  school."  The  prevocational 
centers  and  the  continuation  schools  are  of  such  direct 
importance  for  vocational  guidance  that  we  shall  refer 
to  them  later  in  the  chapter,  after  we  have  discussed 
the  subjects  of  the  school  program. 

High  School  Organization  for  Educational  Guidance. 
—  As  in  the  case  of  the  elementary  school,  a  recognition 
of  the  problems  of  individual  differences  is  prerequisite 
to  that  organization  of  the  high  school  most  favorable 
to  vocational  guidance.  The  aims  and  methods  of  the 
high  school  need  not  differ  from  those  of  the  elementary 

1  See  Briggs,  Wright,  and  Com.  of  Educ,  1914,  pp.  11-12,  21,  25,  93- 
96,  258. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  6 1 

school,  except  in  so  far  as  to  provide  for  the  fact  that 
individual  pupils  differ  more  widely  in  their  interests 
as  we  go  upward  in  the  school  —  the  effect  of  learning 
(or  increased  practice)  on  the  *'  curve  of  learning " 
is  to  widen  the  curve.  Hence  we  need  opportunity  for 
greater  differentiation. 

For  the  purposes  of  vocational  guidance  the  character 
of  the  differentiation  should  depend  on  the  aims,  interests, 
and  future  opportunities  of  the  students.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  know  both  the  pupils  and  their  environment 
before  organizing  the  school  or  drawing  up  the  program 
of  studies.  It  is  idle  to  say,  as  some  superintendents 
may,  that  each  high  school  principal  should  per- 
sonally do  this  work  —  should  study  individuals  and 
environment  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  pupils  educa- 
tional and  vocational  guidance.  The  principal  is  ordi- 
narily too  much  occupied  with  teaching  or  with  the 
routine  duties  of  his  office  either  to  get  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  pupils  or  to  spend  time  enough  in  field 
observations  and  investigations  to  give  him  the  needed 
outlook  toward  the  occupational  opportunities  of  those 
who  are  to  leave  the  school. 

What  then  can  the  organization  provide?  It  should 
provide  what  the  Boston,  Grand  Rapids,  San  Jose, 
Mishawaka,  and  many  other  high  schools  provide: 
one  or  more  teachers  whose  chief  business  in  the  school 
is  to  make  himself  of  special  use  in  investigations  of  this 
sort.  Such  a  person  should  be  one  who  can  leave  the 
school  for  an  hour's  visit  to  a  factory,  store,  or  office 


62  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

when  necessary,  study  the  points  of  view  of  persons  of 
various  occupations  and  various  life  philosophies,  sum- 
marize significant  vocational  information  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  it  available  for  busy  teachers,  be  at  the 
call  of  any  teacher  to  help  solve  a  difficult  vocational 
problem,  give  time  to  consultations  with  parents,  give 
helpful  talks  about  typical  occupations,  and  conduct 
classes  in  the  study  of  opportunities.  Ordinarily,  there 
will  be  at  least  a  man  and  a  woman  teacher  in  each  high 
school  for  such  work.  While  such  a  division  of  labor 
is  undoubtedly  advisable,  yet  if  the  whole  school  program 
is  to  be  related  to  the  vocations,  and  if  we  are  still  to 
adhere  to  the  policy  of  coeducation,  every  teacher  must 
be  prepared  to  do  his  or  her  best  in  capitalizing,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  students  of  both  sexes,  the  vocational 
values  in  every  study. 

Flexibility  in  Organization  Necessary  for  Guidance.  — 
Perhaps  no  element  of  successful  organization  is  of  such 
importance  as  that  of  flexibility.  If  failure  begets 
failure,  and  if  the  habit  of  success  is  of  vital  importance 
for  the  pupil,  then  it  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  see 
that  circumstances  make  possible  the  hourly,  daily, 
and  ultimate  success  of  every  pupil.  The  task  should 
always  be  within  the  grasp  of  the  boy  or  girl.  Principals 
and  teachers  must  be  willing  to  modify  the  course  of 
study  rather  than  spoil  the  boy.^ 

'  ^  In  a  Los  Angeles  intermediate  school,  a  boy  gave  difficulty  to  the 
teacher  and  to  the  class  in  a  recitation  wiiich  began  shortly  after  1 1  o'clock 
each  day.  It  was  found  that  this  was  his  fourth  academic  recitation 
each  morning,  that  he  gave  no  trouble  in  earlier  classes,  that  he  was 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  63 

Boys  are  sometimes  advised  to  interrupt  their  school- 
ing for  a  year's  working  experience.  This  advice  is 
mentioned  by  Davis,  on  page  87  of  Vocational  and 
Moral  Guidance.  Would  it  not  be  better,  however, 
to  increase  the  choice  of  subjects  and  the  kind  of  activi- 
ties so  that  the  boy  will  not  be  exposed  to  the  tempta- 
tion which  comes  with  earning  money  —  wanting  to 
keep  on  working  ?  It  is  the  experience  of  boys'-club 
workers,  and  of  observant  teachers,  that  many  boys 
"  learn  the  value  of  money  "  (a  little  money)  too  early 
in  their  careers  —  so  early  that  it  cuts  short  their  school- 
ing. 

We  shall  find  in  a  later  chapter  that  the  rigid  school 
program  drives  boys  and  girls  from  school  and  into  the 
great  army  of  unskilled  workers.  A  program  adapted 
to  their  needs  might  save  them  for  more  education  and 
more  intelligent  choice  of  vocation. 

School  Organization  should  not  Relieve  the  Child  of 
Responsibility.  —  The  danger  latent  in  the  whole  tend- 
ency to  adapt  the  school  organization  and  program  to 
the  child  is  that  we  may  make  conditions  so  easy  for 
him  that  he  will  become  a  creature  of  whims,  drifting, 
and  dependence.  Prudence  and  good  judgment,  there- 
fore, are  necessary  in  the  administration  of  the  elective 
system  and  the  provisions  for  flexibility.  These 
devices  should  never  be  used  by  a  boy  or  girl  to  evade 

fond  of  athletics  but  was  assigned  to  the  g>'mnasium  class  only  twnce 
a  week.  Here  was  obviously  an  opportunity  to  change  custom.  In 
spite  of  administrative  difficulties  the  boy's  program  should  have  been 
altered,  and  daily  physical  training  given  him. 


64  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

an  obvious  duty,  to  avoid  the  necessary  consequences 
of  a  careless  choice,  or  to  withdraw  from  a  half-completed 
undertaking. 

On  the  positive  side,  what  can  the  organization  do 
to  foster  character  development?  It  can  provide  for 
breadth  of  experience  through  many  different  kinds  of 
tasks,  and  it  can  require  success  in  these  tasks  as  a  con- 
dition to  participation  in  the  more  advanced  and  at- 
tractive activities  of  the  school.  Further,  it  can  seek 
out  the  aims  and  ambitions  of  the  boy  or  girl  in  his  own 
field  of  interest  and  show  him  what  an  amount  of  effort 
and  persistence  is  necessary  to  success.  Thus,  the  boy 
who  wishes  to  learn  to  play  the  bass  drum  may  be  given 
lessons  and  allowed  to  try  with  the  school  orchestra, 
where  he  will  readily  see  the  need  for  application,  atten- 
tion, and  study.  Teaching  him  to  do  the  broad  jump 
correctly,  using  the  proper  marks  to  get  his  step,  will 
mean  months  of  study  and  practice  for  him.  The  girl 
who  wishes  to  "go  on  the  stage  "  may  be  assigned  a 
part  in  a  school  play  where  she  may  be  shown  the  neces- 
sity for  a  long  course  of  training  as  a  prerequisite  to 
success. 

The  habit  of  hard,  willing  work  in  "  play  "  can  cer- 
tainly teach  good  lessons  needed  in  the  occupation, 
and  these  lessons  can  be  transferred  to  the  schoolroom 
and  to  after  life,  if  the  teachers  will  make  a  serious 
attempt  to  see  that  the  transfer  is  made  possible.  Later 
we  shall  show  how  some  organizations  have  used  student 
or  club  activities  for  this  purpose. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  65 

How  Certain  New  Plans  of  Organization  Stimulate 
and  Aid  Vocational  Guidance.  —  New  plans  of  organ- 
ization inevitably  stimulate  guidance,  for  they  involve 
a  reexamination  of  the  aims  and  methods  of  the  school. 
The  Gary  plan  widens  the  experience  and  opportunity 
of  the  child,  and  so  aids  in  the  discovery  of  his  interests 
and  talents.^  Further,  the  practical  nature  of  the  shop 
work  gives  excellent  preliminary  knowledge  in  several 
trades.^  The  flexible  daily  program  gives  opportunity 
for  outside  experiences  which  widen  the  vocational 
horizon. 

The  longer  school  day  is  another  plan  which  is  favor- 
able to  better  guidance,  for  it  involves  more  play  and 
more  manual  work. 

The  supervision  of  the  child's  experiences  in  the  winter 
and  summer  vacations  is  a  fruitful  method  of  guiding 
him.  This  plan  is  used  in  many  school  departments, 
among  them  Portland,  Oregon,  and  the  High  School 
of  Commerce,  Boston.  Dartmouth  College  has  recently 
inaugurated  such  a  scheme. 

Summary.  —  Our  survey  of  school  organization  leads 
us  to  conclude  that  much  of  the  recent  progress  has 
been  directly  in  line  with  educational  and  vocational 
guidance,  in  that  teachers  are  led  to  turn  their  attention 
to  the  welfare  of  the  individual,  provision  for  differentia- 
tion is  made,  and  certain  newer  plans  are  opening  the 

*  It  has  been  suggested  by  Dewey  that  the  enriched  opportunity  in 
the  Gary  plan  will  make  actual  guidance  unnecessary.  This  question 
we  shall  discuss  in  the  next  chapter. 

2  See  Com.  of  Educ.  1915  report,  pp.  27-30;  also  Burris. 
r 


66  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

way  to  more  efficient  guidance.  We  shall  now  turn  to 
the  consideration  of  the  studies  of  the  school  program, 
as  instruments  for  educational  and  vocational  guidance. 

Possibilities  for  Guidance  in  the  School  Program.*  — 
One  of  the  writers  on  vocational  guidance  maintains 
that  the  subjects  of  the  school  program  which  have  no 
occupational  value  are  of  Httle  use.  We  need  not  agree 
with  him,  but  we  must  hold,  if  the  child  is  to  be  regarded 
by  the  teacher  as  a  prospective  worker,  that  each  lesson 
having  something  to  contribute  to  the  vocational  effi- 
ciency of  the  child  should  be  taught  with  that  fact  in 
mind.  The  vocational  uses  will  appear  in  almost  all 
of  the  studies  and  will  predominate  in  many  of  them. 

English  used  for  Guidance.  —  No  doubt  many  teachers 
would  object  to  displacing  the  present  list  of  literary 
masterpieces  which  form  the  basis  of  the  course  in 
English.  But  these  books  themselves  have  vocational 
impUcations.  Witness  the  lessons  in  qualities  necessary 
to  success  in  such  works  ^  as  Captains  Courageous, 
Paul  Revere's  Ride,  Treasure  Island,  Horatius,  The 
Last  of  the  Mohicans,  Tom  Brown's  School  Days,  Old 
Testament  Stories,  Bacon's  Essays,  Emerson's  Essays, 
and  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities.  Witness,  too,  the  actual  voca- 
tional information  and  lessons  in  vocational  guidance 
in  Silas  Marner,  David  Copperfield,  Oliver  Twist,  Snow- 

^  For  references  on  the  vocational  aspects  of  the  school  program,  see 
the  following :  Bonser,  Fletcher,  Giles,  Richards,  Leavitt,  WTieatley, 
Wile. 

2  These  names  are  selected  from  the  course  of  study  of  a  city  which 
is  doing  almost  nothing  in  the  way  of  conscious  vocational  guidance. 


EDUCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  67 

hound,  Franklin's  Autobiography,  and  Parton's  Captains 
oj  Industry.  The  vocational  questions  arising  in  such 
books  would  serve  as  bases  for  interesting  discussions 
which  would  put  more  life  into  a  study  which  now  often 
contributes  notably  to  the  process  of  eliminating  children 
from  school. 

Some  schools  require  book  reviews  of  pupils  in  con- 
nection with  the  English  work,  and  the  available  list 
is  composed  almost  exclusively  of  fiction.  It  would 
at  once  add  to  the  interest  and  breadth  of  the  English 
work  if  books  on  vocational  subjects  were  added  to  this 
list.i 

The  elimination  of  such  material  as  useless  formal 
grammar  and  long  spelling  Usts  would  give  room  for 
more  practical  work  in  the  language  and  literature 
classes. 

Written  Composition.  —  The  work  at  Grand  Rapids 
has  been  noted ;  it  stands  as  an  example  of  effective 
use  of  composition.  Contribution  No.  I  in  Davis' 
book,  which  concerns  work  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  offers  several  interesting  samples  of  pupils' 
work. 

Undeveloped  Possibilities  in  Oral  English.  —  One  of 
the  Grand  Rapids  teachers  ^  raises  objections  to  the  use 
of  long  biographical  books,  and  gives  her  e.xperiences 
in  classes  formed  into  clubs  and  arranging  their  own 
programs.     The  classes  have  made  a  specialty  of  "  local 

'  See  Davis's  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance  for  lists  of  sucti  books. 
*  Eaton,  V.  G.  Bulletin,  Jan.  1916. 


68  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

heroes,"  interviewing  persons  in  their  own  city,  and 
reporting  the  results  orally  to  the  class. 

Moreover,  there  may  be  a  danger  involved  in  attach- 
ing vocational  guidance  unthinkingly  to  the  written 
composition  lesson.  Some  teachers  of  composition  con- 
cern themselves  chiefly  with  the  mechanics  of  writing, 
with  the  twofold  result  that  subject  matter  is  subor- 
dinated, and  students  dislike  the  work.  It  would  be 
a  pity  for  such  a  teacher  to  add  vocational  themes  to 
the  slaughter.  Red  ink,  Hberally  applied,  will  kill 
even  a  subject  as  interesting  as  the  choice  of  a 
vocation. 

Why  should  we  not  approach  vocational  interests 
through  Oral  EngHsh,  and  wait  until  the  students  them- 
selves express  the  desire  to  put  ideas  into  written  form  ? 
All  the  topics  Hsted  in  the  Grand  Rapids  suggestions  are 
appropriate  for  oral  work.  Spoken  English  offers  rich 
opportunity  for  experimentation  and  self-discovery. 
If  the  pupil  is  allowed  to  select  his  own  subjects,  he  will 
be  found  explaining  scientific  and  mechanical  processes, 
telling  about  inventions,  discussing  current  events,  and 
arguing  about  vocations.  He  can  be  induced  to  learn 
to  draw  as  he  speaks,  to  give  simple  business  talks  with 
demonstrations,  to  take  part  in  debates,  and  to  organize 
impromptu  conversations,  interviews,  and  plays,  in  which 
problems  like  those  in  real  Hfe  are  presented  and  solved. 
In  all  this  work  he  will  make  two  gains :  he  will  grow 
in  confidence  and  speaking  abiUty ;  and  he  will  discover 
his  interests.    If  something  closer  still  to  the  vocation 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  69 

is  desired,  interviews  may  be  arranged  in  which  one 
pupil  applies  for  work  or  promotion/  and  afterward  the 
class  may  discuss  and  criticize.  Nomination  speeches, 
announcements,  the  oral  advertisement,  technical  de- 
scriptions, the  introduction  of  a  speaker,  and  mock 
trials  offer  valuable  educational  guidance. 

Parliamentary  law  is  of  special  importance.  It  trains 
the  same  person  to  lead  and  to  follow.  It  is  used  in  all 
organizations,  whether  business  or  social,  into  which  the 
children  will  enter. 

Oral  English  is  used  in  connection  with  every  vocation ; 
hence  its  importance. 

Arithmetic.  —  Such  subjects  as  partial  payments  and 
cube  root  are  going  out  of  the  arithmetics  because  they 
have  little  vocational  use.^  It  is  being  recognized  that 
spelling,  writing,  and  arithmetic  are  for  practical  every- 
day needs,  and  that  time  spent  in  trying  to  find  un- 
related "  culture  "  in  them  is  waste  time.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  teacher  to  relate  the  arithmetic  as  closely 
as  possible  to  the  obvious  vocational  needs  of  the  boy  and 
girl.  The  schoolroom,  yard,  store,  and  home  offer  wide 
opportunity  for  problems  in  arithmetic.  In  the  upper 
grades  it  may  be  wise  to  offer  sample  problems  from 
each  of  several  common  occupations.  It  may  also  be 
advisable  to  give  the  boys  some  arithmetic  which  will 

'  Artificiality  and  tiresome  realism  may  be  avoided  by  dramatizing 
a  plot  in  connection  with  the  application,  thus  making  the  interview  into 
an  extempore  play. 

"  See  the  fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study 
of  Education,  Part  I,  pp.  61-130.    University  of  Chicago. 


7©  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

not  interest  the  girls,  and  the  girls  some  problems 
connected  with  homemaking.^ 

Geography.  —  Geography  has  manifold  possibilities. 
Related  to  human  life,  it  can  serve  to  introduce  dis- 
cussions on  such  topics  as  the  following :  Why  do  people 
live  here?  What  do  they  do  for  a  living?  Wliat  has 
the  topography  to  do  with  the  habits  and  occupations 
of  the  people  ?  -  What  are  the  resources  of  this  place 
or  that?  How  can  we  account  for  commercial  and 
industrial  differences  between  two  places?  Geography 
may  be  related  to  arithmetic  by  the  use  of  time  tables 
and  graphs.  Stereoscopic  pictures,  moving  pictures, 
visits  to  museums,  travel,  and  reference  books  all  may 
be  used  in  connection  with  the  geography  lesson. 

Commercial  geography  is  a  profitable  high  school  sub- 
ject of  great  vocational  value.  Another  name  sometimes 
used  is  Industrial  Geography,  and  the  phrase  Occupa- 
tional Geography  is  coming  into  use,  though  textbooks 
have  not  thus  far  covered  that  field. 

Social  Studies :  History,  Economics,  Civics,  Sociology. 
—  Fortunately,  history  is  becoming  less  a  fixed  body  of 
knowledge,  and  more  a  thing  to  be  studied  in  the  light 
of  present  events.  Textbooks  are  emphasizing  the 
begumings  of  industries,  changes  caused  by  inventions,^ 
the  facilities  for    transportation,  the    educational   re- 

1  See  Leavitt  and  Brown,  pp.  73,  176,  185-191,  220. 

2  See  Chamberlain,  Jas.  F.,  for  a  plan. 

3  Prof.  Bonser  points  out  that  industrial  heroes  are  as  worthy  of 
consideration  as  military  heroes. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  7 1 

sources  of  the  people,  the  manners,  customs,  and  occupa- 
tions. This  gives  the  teacher  the  opportunity  to  show 
the  causes  which  were  at  work  and  to  show  that  these 
causes  in  many  cases  are  operating  to-day.  Thus  we 
lead  to  the  student's  attempts  to  estimate  the  effects 
of  these  forces,  both  in  the  present  and  in  the  future, 
which  is  perhaps  the  chief  use  of  history. 

No  better  exercise  can  be  given  a  pupil  in  the  history 
class  than  the  task  of  finding  out  all  he  can  about  the 
history  of  a  chosen  occupation.  Throughout  the  course 
he  can  collect  and  record  information  whenever  it  can 
be  found,  and  may  make  interesting  reports  to  the  class. 

Community  civics  is  rapidly  replacing  the  civics  which 
concerned  itself  largely  with  constitutions,  terms  of 
offices,  and  salaries  of  officers,  and  now  children  may 
study  the  complex,  practical  relationships  of  their  own 
environment. 

Boys  and  girls  must  be  taught  the  elementary  notions 
of  political  economy,  for  the  reason  expressed  by  Jevons : 

If  people  do  not  understand  a  true  political  economy, 
they  will  make  a  false  one  of  their  own.     [P.  1 1 .] 

Occupational  Hfe  should  not  be  entered  by  the  child 
until  he  has  been  given  some  idea  of  its  problems.  He 
should  have  an  elementary  knowledge  of  how  he  as  a 
worker  helps  to  pay  taxes,  how  the  tax  money  is  spent, 
what  rent  includes,  what  profit  is  for,  what  are  the  prob- 
lems of  the  employer-employee  relation,  the  elements 
of  production,  examples  of  cooperation,  the  advantages 


72  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

and  disadvantages  of  competition,  causes  of  unemploy- 
ment, thrift,  and  conservation.  The  work  may  be  a 
combination  of  sociology,  civics,  and  economics.  Segre- 
gations in  and  definitions  of  the  three  fields  are  un- 
necessary; the  consideration  of  practical  problems  is 
more  important. 

Such  studies  cannot  be  postponed  till  the  high  school, 
because  all  our  citizens  need  them.^ 

How  Science  is  Related  to  Vocations.  —  The  last  ten 
or  fifteen  years  has  seen  a  marvelous  change  in  the 
teaching  of  elementary  science,  as  a  comparison  of  text- 
books will  show.  Formerly,  curiosity  was  the  chief 
interest  appealed  to;  now  use  is  becoming  the  test. 
Courses  in  nature  study  which  classified  insects  and 
named  curious  botanical  specimens  have  their  place 
for  children  who  find  satisfaction  in  this  kind  of 
work.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the  science  which 
ties  natural  causes  to  their  effects  in  street,  stream, 
mine,  factory,  and  farm  also  should  have  its  place  in 
the  school. 

Drawing  and  Design.  —  The  head  of  a  high  school 
art  department  is  fond  of  saying  that  we  neglect  an 
important  fact  about  the  Greeks:  though  it  is  true 
that  they  adorned  their  homes  and  temples  with  beauti- 
ful statues,  they  also  put  artistic  expression  into  the  pots 
and  pans  of  the  kitchen.  The  courses  in  applied  art 
and  applied  design  reflect  the  modern  desire  to  couple 

1  Some  suggestive  references,  either  for  the  pupils  or  teachers :  Davis 
(Field  of,  etc.),  Dunn,  Gillette,  Barnard,  Pritchard,  Haynes,  Bate. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  73 

theory  and  practice,  ornament  and  use,  appreciation  and 
execution,  "  culture  "  and  vocation.  Drawing  should 
be  intimately  related  to  manual  training,  and  it  should 
be  freely  used  in  studies  like  oral  and  written  composi- 
tion, science,  geography,  and  arithmetic.  The  ability 
to  make  a  rough  sketch  is  useful  in  many  occupations. 
Many  schools  do  efficient  work  in  drawing,  both  in  the 
elementary  and  in  the  high  schools.^ 

Higher  Mathematics.  —  Much  algebra  and  geometry 
as  now  taught  is  purely  theoretical  and  might  be  sup- 
planted by  problems  related  to  needs.  It  is  now  recog- 
nized that  a  student  may  be  taught  to  use  the  law  of 
signs  with  perfect  accuracy,  even  if  he  cannot  explain  its 
principle.  The  formula  for  the  ratio  of  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  to  the  diameter  may  be  grasped  by 
analogy,  without  all  the  tedious  drill  on  the  logic,  and 
time  for  practical  applications  may  be  gained. 

Other  Studies  may  Become  Vocational.  —  Any  study, 
whether  Greek  or  geology,  is  a  vocational  study  for  the 
few  or  many  in  the  class  who  may  find  their  interest  to 
lie  in  that  work  and  decide  upon  an  occupation  for  which 
this  study  is  a  requirement.  This  is  an  argument, 
obviously,  for  a  wide  range  of  opportunity  in  school 
and  school  system.  Further,  higher  vocational  courses 
often  require  certain  high  school  subjects,  such  as  Latin 
and  mathematics. 

The  Manual  Arts.  —  We  shall  speak  in  a  later  section 
about  the  high  school  subjects  which  are  intentionally 

*  See  bibliography,  Haney. 


74  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

vocational ;  here  we  shall  consider  the  manual  training 
of  the  elementary  grades. 

In  the  city  of  Los  Angeles  ^  there  is  an  enrollment  of 
about  52,000  in  the  first  eight  grades,  not  counting  those 
in  the  intermediate  schools.  For  these  children  ninety 
minutes  weekly  is  devoted  to  manual  training.  About 
one  hundred  and  six  teachers  are  engaged  full  time  in 
the  work,  besides  nearly  a  thousand  grade  teachers 
who  assist.  In  the  first  and  second  grades  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  activities :  sand-table  work,  clay  work, 
bead-stringing,  seed-stringing,  paper-tearing,  cutting  and 
folding,  ruler  work,  paper  construction,  spool  knitting, 
hand  crochet,  slat-weaving,  paper-weaving,  jute  and 
raffia  weaving,  and  knotting.  The  handwork  is  closely 
related  to  the  drawing,  music,  nature  study,  gardening, 
and  arithmetic.  Woodwork  extends  from  the  fourth 
through  the  eighth  grade.  From  the  sixth  grade  on 
cement  is  used,  and  reed  and  textile  work.  Super- 
vision and  assistance  is  given  to  the  work  which  boys 
and  girls  do  on  their  own  account  at  home.  Shoe  re- 
pairing is  taught  at  two  schools.  At  another  school 
all  the  work  of  the  school  restaurant  —  cooking,  sewing, 
laundering,  and  cleaning  —  is  done  by  the  students. 
Sewing  is  carried  on  in  all  the  grades,  and  cooking  in  the 
last  three. 

In  addition  to  the  above  described  manual  training, 
one  hundred  and  one  schools  are  doing  work  in  gardening 
and  elementary  agriculture,  with  twenty-two  special  fuU- 
*  See  School  Report  for  year  ending  June,  1914. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  75 

time  teachers.  Each  of  nearly  12,000  pupils  has  a  gar- 
den, with  a  total  of  eighteen  acres  under  active  cultiva- 
tion.^ 

These  activities  show  what  can  be  done  in  the  regular 
school,  and  the  vocational  values  are  evident.  No 
better  educational  guidance  can  be  given  than  the 
combination  furnished  by  the  manual  arts,  with  the 
studies  of  the  ordinary  school  program  related  to  the 
vocations.  As  Eliot  says,  in  discussing  what  studies 
the  school  should  offer: 

The  elements  of  the  arts  applicable  in  ordinary  households 
and  in  various  trades  and  callings  ought  to  be  carefully  taught 
in  all  schools,  public,  endowed,  or  private,  such  as  drawing 
and  designing,  domestic  science  and  art  and  home  economics, 
carpentry  and  joinery,  and,  in  rural  communities,  agricul- 
ture.2 

It  is  important  that  manual  work  be  made  practical 
if  it  is  to  have  any  great  ejQfect  in  discovering  aptitudes. 
Not  "  manual  dexterity,"  but  rather  the  abihty  to  grasp 
and  solve  problems  is  the  aim  —  to  repair  a  leaky 
faucet  or  a  broken  rake.  The  stage  should  be  set 
for  the  occurrence  of  such  problems.  Occasionally  the 
pupils  should  be  brought  face  to  face  with  a  complex 
situation  such  as  is  presented  in  the  farm  or  factory. 
The  dramatization  of  actual  trade  conditions  offers 
opportunity  for  relating  the  manual  arts  to  the  other 

^  Note  that  these  figures  relate  to  conditions  before  the  world  war 
began.    The  191 7  figure  was  i8cx>  acres. 
^  Readings,  p.  7.     See  also  Cole. 


76  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

work  of  the  school.  The  importance  of  such  manual 
training  to  vocational  guidance  is  so  great  that  it  may 
almost  be  said  that  broad  and  practical  manual  training 
in  the  elementary  school  is  indispensable  for  adequate 
guidance.  Vocational  counseling  cannot  be  founded 
on  a  narrow  school  program. 

The  Use  of  Museums  in  Connection  with  School 
Studies.  —  An  undeveloped  field  in  most  cities  is  the 
use  of  museums.  The  191 5  report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education,  Chapter  XXII,  surveys  the  work  of 
museums,  and  a  1914  Bulletin^  explains  the  work  of 
the  St.  Louis  museum.  Such  organizations  as  the  Boston 
Children's  Museum  minister  to  the  interest  which 
children  have  in  the  entertaining  and  curious,  but  they 
have  little  vocational  significance.  The  Philadelphia 
Commercial  Museum  supplements  the  work  of  the 
schools  in  geography,  commerce,  and  industry,  and  is 
of  much  greater  use  for  vocational  purposes  than  are 
collections  of  shells,  stuffed  animals,  botanical  specimens, 
insects,  and  the  like,  good  as  these  may  be.  American 
curators  still  have  much  to  learn  from  European  in- 
stitutions, where  attention  is  paid  to  both  kinds  of  ex- 
hibits. In  the  scientific  museum  in  Munich  one  can  see 
the  X-ray,  diagrams  of  the  chemical  composition  of 
common  substances,  the  full-sized  model  of  the  shaft  of 
a  mine,  models  of  canal-locks,  pulley  systems,  ships, 
agricultural  machines,  bridges,  etc.,  besides  machines  to 
illustrate   the   principles    of    many    sciences.     In    the 

•  No.  48,  Rathman. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  77 

Museum  of  Arts  and  Crafts  in  Paris  are  shown  industrial 
processes,  safety  devices,  and  models  of  factories  and 
mines.  In  the  South  Kensington  Museum  of  London, 
besides  the  extensive  collection  of  scientific  and  industrial 
subjects,  there  are  scores  of  models  of  machinery  which 
may  be  set  in  motion  by  the  pressing  of  a  button.  Here 
boys  may  study  the  steam  locomotive  from  one  model 
upside  down,  another  cut  into  a  vertical  section  in  the 
middle  and  set  up  against  a  glass,  and  another  with  a 
section  cut  through  one  of  the  cylinders. 

So  far  as  is  known  to  the  writer,  no  American  museum, 
unless  possibly  that  at  Philadelphia  and  certain  exhibits 
in  the  new  National  Museum  at  Washington,  can  com- 
pare in  vocational  helpfulness  with  any  of  these  three 
European  examples.  Here  is  a  big  field  for  progress  in 
our  methods  of  teaching.  Will  not  the  museum  and  the 
moving  picture  teach  much  about  geography  and  manual 
arts  in  the  future  school  and  thus  play  a  large  part  in 
vocational  guidance  ? 

New  Subjects  for  the  School  Program.  —  The  most 
important  new  study  needed  in  the  school  program  is 
a  course  on  vocations.  This  course  is  needed  in  the 
elementary  school,  and  it  should  be  continued  in  the 
high  school.    As  stated  by  Woods : 

We  teach  our  youth  about  the  characteristics  of  geographi- 
cal regions,  the  properties  of  numbers,  and  the  peculiarities 
of  language.  As  they  go  on  with  their  studies  we  teach  them 
the  characteristics  of  chemical  elements  and  compounds, 
the  physical  properties  of  bodies,  the  texture  and  mechanism 


78  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

of  organic  structures,  both  vegetable  and  animal,  and  their 
young  minds  unfold  in  the  presence  of  a  world  richer  and 
more  complicated  than  they  had  ever  dreamed.  But  about 
the  qualities  of  men  demanded  by  the  world's  work,  about 
the  role  played  by  tact,  by  ability  to  meet  men,  by  differing 
traits  and  tendencies  of  mind,  as  related  to  individual  suc- 
cess in  specific  present-day  tasks,  we  teach  little.  That 
the  demands  of  one  profession  or  craft  are  radically  different 
from  those  of  another,  that  the  application  of  individual 
endowment  to  its  appropriate  task  is  a  tremendously  diffi- 
cult thing,  they  learn  only  in  the  wasteful  school  of  experi- 
ence. .  .  . 

Every  boy  before  leaving  the  elementary  school  should 
be  given  an  accurate  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  principal 
kinds  of  human  work,  the  qualities  demanded  by  them,  the 
preparation  required,  the  rewards  offered,  the  advantages 
and  the  opportunities  for  usefulness  which  they  afford. 
He  should,  moreover,  be  taught  the  rudiments  of  self-ap- 
praisal from  the  vocational  point  of  view  and  should  have 
the  benefit  of  counsel  with  a  professional  vocational  counselor 
who  is  thoroughly  informed  with  regard  to  the  industrial 
opportunities  of  the  community  and  the  means  of  entrance 
thereupon.^ 

Bloonifield  states  the  need  thus : 

Now  real  selection  is  impossible  where  the  world  of  occu- 
pation is  a  dark  continent  .  .  . 

It  is  in  our  centers  of  population,  in  the  apartment  and 
tenement-house  districts,  that  the  masses  of  children  are 
to  be  found.  Here  is  much  need  for  unfolding  the  pan- 
orama of  occupations  to  the  quick  intelUgences  of  the 
young  people  .2 

1  Youth,  etc.,  pp.  4-6.  *  Readings,  pp.  27-28,  30. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  79 

A  school  course  in  vocational  information  should 
aim  to  give  needed  direction  for  advanced  education 
as  well  as  for  vocation.  The  course  in  the  elementary 
school  should  aim  to  afford  opportunity  for  an  intelli- 
gent choice  of  a  high  school,  and  for  the  choice  of  the 
particular  course.  References  such  as  the  Boston  School 
Committee  Report  of  191 2,  the  Los  Angeles  Vocational 
Bulletin  No.  i,  the  charts  of  educational  opportunity 
in  the  Richmond  and  Minneapolis  Surveys  for  Vocational 
Education,  the  Boston  charts  of  the  Women's  Municipal 
League,  and  the  recent  Philadelphia  publication  should 
be  studied  as  texts  for  the  course,  and  visits  to  the  schools 
be  a  part  of  the  work.  Li  a  similar  way,  the  high  school 
course  in  vocations  should  use  the  catalogues  of  colleges 
and  technical  schools.  The  high  school  should  make 
the  necessary  connections  with  the  elementary  school, 
so  that  the  advice  given  may  be  followed  in  the  high 
school.  Freshmen  students  in  the  high  school  need 
careful  educational  guidance. 

Turning  to  the  high  school  course  in  vocational  in- 
formation, the  Grand  Rapids  plan,  with  the  modifica- 
tions we  have  noted,  may  be  followed.  Another  sug- 
gestive plan  is  that  described  by  Superintendent  Wheat- 
ley  of  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  the  March,  191 5,  number  of 
School  Review. 

In  a  later  place  we  shall  outline  a  proposed  plan  for 
a  life-career  class. 

Possibilities  for  Guidance  in  the  Association  of  Stu- 
dents with  Each  Other.  —  It  seems  likely  that  students 


8o  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

obtain  more  usable  experience  and  information  from 
contact  with  each  other  than  they  do  from  adults.  The 
"  student  activities,"  which  are  frowned  upon  by  many 
teachers  as  "  interfering  with  school  work,"  have  great 
vocational  significance. 

We  have  already  noted  the  serious  and  valuable 
lessons  from  early  play,  in  imparting  experience  and 
interpreting  to  the  child  both  himself  and  the  world. 
Later  play  continues  these  processes,  and  brings  out 
vocational  tendencies.  Philip  Davis  speaks  of  the  need 
for  the  vocational  counselor  to  take  account  of  traits 
developed  on  the  playground.^  Not  only  do  athletics, 
if  rightly  conducted,  furnish  necessary  and  proper  ex- 
citement, but  they  test,  select,  and  train,  and  this  without 
the  failures  and  disappointments  often  attending  failures 
to  pass  in  school  work.  The  activities  carried  on  by 
the  Boy  Scouts  and  the  Campfire  Girls  have  the  same 
good  effects  as  athletics  —  everybody  gains  by  trying 
the  games  and  tasks  proposed  in  their  handbooks, 
even  if  he  does  not  excel. 

The  summer  camp  is  a  microcosm  of  the  industries 
of  a  community,  and  may  be  made  to  offer  unsurpassed 
opportunity  for  guidance. 

Competitions,  such  as  those  in  growing  corn  and  pigs, 
held  by  the  state  and  federal  departments  of  agriculture 
and  by  the  General  Education  Board ;  ^  organizations 
such  as  the  Junior  Association  of  Commerce  of  Grand 

^  Streetland,  p.  249. 

2  See  Secy,  of  Interior,  Report,  June,  1915,  p.  141. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  8l 

Rapids/  dramatics,  and  boys'  and  girls'  clubs,  all  furnish 
preliminary  and  tentative  specialization  of  an  advanta- 
geous kind,  and  disclose  vocational  clews. 

Opportunity  for  participation  in  student  govern- 
ment not  only  helps  to  teach  civic  rights  and  respon- 
sibilities, but  it  also  gives  play  for  tact  and  human 
intercourse  which  is  important  in  the  vocation. 

When  shall  we  have,  as  a  student  activity  or  as  a 
regular  part  of  the  school  program,  an  organization 
and  assignment  of  the  janitor  and  gardening  work  about 
the  school?  Professor  James's  celebrated  pamphlet 
The  Moral  Equivalent  of  War,  suggests  the  question, 
and  if  a  beginning  is  to  be  made  the  schools  must  make 
it.  Miss  Lathrop  ^  maintains  that  the  janitor  should 
be  a  teacher,  and  that  the  work  of  caring  for  the  school 
should  be  done  by  the  pupils  as  a  regular  part  of  their 
work.  Claxton  beheves  that  the  school  should  organize 
the  labor  of  the  pupils  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  con- 
tribute toward  their  support.^  Many  schools  have  made 
a  beginning:  furniture  for  the  school  department  is 
made  in  the  shops  of  the  school,  books  are  bound, 
printing  done,  automobiles  kept  in  repair,  lawns  cared 
for,  and  heating  plants  managed,  each  as  a  part  of  the 
manual  training  of  the  school. 

How  Club  and  Student  Activities  Enable  the  Child  to 
Discover  his  Powers.  —  We  shall  now  present  some 
specific  instances  to  show  how  the  boy  discloses  his  aims 

*  See  Davis,  p.  286.  ^  19 14  Proceedings,  pp.  49-50. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  46. 


§2  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

and  abilities,  to  himself  and  to  others,  by  means  of  these 
activities  which  are  not  a  part  of  the  regular  school 
program.  The  boys  from  whose  experiences  we  have 
drawn  are  or  were  members  of  the  Columbia  Park  Boys' 
Club  ^  of  San  Francisco. 

Guidance  through  Club  and  Student  Activities 

summaries  of  actual  cases,  taken  from 
correspondence 

I.  F.  C.  Studied  electricity  at  a  trade  school,  and  be- 
came interested  in  the  school  paper.  Went  on  Australian 
trip,  and  wrote  constantly  about  the  trip.  Wrote  a  $75 
story  about  Hawaiian  Islands.  Took  up  work  with  Boy 
Scouts  and  wrote  scout  news  for  papers.  Often  went  out 
on  news  details  to  accommodate  one  of  the  editors;  finally 
went  into  the  newspaper  office  as  reporter  for  the  waterfront 

*  Speaking  of  the  work  of  the  club,  as  it  relates  to  vocational  giiidance, 
Major  Sidney  S.  Peixotto,  the  founder  and  president,  says:  "I  con- 
sider that  the  school  studies  have  absolutely  nothing  to  do  with  the 
vocational  end  of  a  boy's  life ;  I  mean  by  this,  no  matter  how  good  a 
boy  is  in  study  periods,  it  is  really  no  p>ositive  indication  of  his  .  .  .  vo- 
cation. The  true  vocational  guidance  comes  from  the  educational 
play  given  a  boy.  I  include  in  this  list  of  educational  play :  Dramatics, 
Dancing,  First  Aid,  Gymnastics,  Handicraft  Work,  Military  Training, 
and  Outdoor  Athletics.  UntQ  the  school  includes  most  of  these  subjects, 
the  difl&culty  of  advising  boys  by  teachers  will  be  great.  By  studying 
a  boy  in  his  play  activities,  and  by  giving  him  serious  tasks  to  perform  in 
achievement  work,  I  am  able  to  decide  upon  a  boy's  natural  bent  and 
to  act  as  his  guide  in  shaping  his  thoughts  for  life  work.  ...  It  will 
be  necessary  for  the  schools  eventually  to  go  into  the  achievement  idea, 
because  it  is  only  by  example  or  illustration  of  actual  conditions  that 
children  learn  anything,  especially  those  traits  wliich  are  necessary  to 
success  in  any  vocation,  —  energy,  work,  and  the  need  of  long  and  care- 
ful preparation." 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  83 

district.  Sees  literary  possibilities  and  intends  to  devote 
his  life  to  writing.  States  that  very  few  of  the  boys  who 
studied  in  the  trade  school  have  followed  the  lines  they  stud- 
ied.   "The  architects  seem  to  be  the  most  consistent." 

2.  J.  C.  Joined  club  when  very  young.  "  I  owe  the 
shaping  of  my  early  life  and  the  commencement  of  my  prog- 
ress ...  to  the  envirormient  and  activity  of  the  club." 
Graduated  from  grammar  grades  and  took  a  job  driving  a 
butcher  wagon,  with  hours  so  long  that  night  school  was 
impossible.  Was  placed  in  another  position  by  the  club, 
and  went  to  night  school.  "  It  was  through  the  spirit  of 
the  club  that  I  took  full  advantage  of  this,  and  I  do  not 
believe  the  education  I  received  would  have  been  obtained 
had  it  not  been  through  this  influence."  Has  "been  with 
several  importing  and  exporting  firms,  but  never  deviated 
from  this  line  of  business."  Now  managing  one  of  the 
offices  of  a  trading  company.  "It  is  needless  to  say  that 
I  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  the  club's  work.  It  puts  the 
right  kind  of  optimism  and  enthusiasm  into  a  fellow  that 
works  wonders  in  after  life." 

3.  M.  S.  Decision  to  study  medicine  was  primarily  due 
to  home  influences,  "greatly  augmented  through  my  club 
experiences."  Was  called  "Doc"  in  club,  on  account  of 
facility  in  bandaging  blisters  on  walking  trips.  Club  work- 
ers encouraged  the  ambition.  Now  taking  a  medical  course, 
and  earning  S70  per  month  as  a  signal  towerman  at  night,  a 
position  which  gives  opportunity  for  study.  "I  believe 
that  the  club  has  been  the  most  important  influence  in  that 
with  such  a  wide  range  of  opportunities  it  gives  one  a  chance 
to  choose  a  line  to  which  he  feels  best  adapted." 

4.  H.  R.  "I  acquired  more  confidence  in  myself,  gained 
broader  views  and  ideas  through  association  with  people  of 


84  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

higher  intellectual  standards  than  my  own.  The  influence 
of  the  club  was  on  the  moral  and  social  side  (social  in  its 
broader  sense)."  Now  a  civil  engineer,  and  teacher  in  a 
technical  evening  school. 

5.  A.  J.  T.  States  that  the  club  offers  opportunity  for 
its  members  to  become  broader  in  ways  often  neglected 
by  the  other  methods  of  schooling.  "  All  the  teaching  takes 
place  through  actual  practical  experience.  It  does  not  in- 
struct its  members  what  to  do  when  they  go  out  of  the  club, 
but  actually  goes  through  all  this  work  with  them.  .  .  .  The 
club  has  been  the  means  of  putting  all  my  other  education 
into  good  and  practical  experience."  Professional  cornetist. 
Got  his  start  in  the  club  band. 

Some  Implications  for  School  Authorities,  from  Club 
and  Student  Activities.  —  The  ob\'ious  lesson  from  the 
guidance  furnished  by  the  activities  of  boys  and  girls 
outside  the  classroom,  is  that  school  authorities  should 
systematize,  organize,  and  encourage  them  so  that  they 
may  have  their  full  effect.  Every  schoolman  or  woman 
should  read  on  scouting  and  play,  school  credit  for  home 
work  ^  and  such  works  as  Denison's  Helping  School 
Children.  Too  often  the  interests  of  children  are  ex- 
ploited by  persons  with  goods  to  advertise,  or  directed 
by  other  persons  who  lack  the  educational  aim.  The 
only  preventive  is  to  substitute  school  control.  Many 
principals  have  long  used  these  interests  as  leaven  in 
the  school.  In  Chapter  XII  of  Vocational  and  Moral 
Guidance,  Jesse  Davis  outlines  a  plan. 

Student  and  club  activities  have  too  often  been  called 

^  Alderman. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  85 

the  "  side  shows  "  of  the  school.  Pending  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  teachers  to  the  real  opportunity  these  activi- 
ties offer,  students  who  have  seen  both  the  side  shows 
and  the  "  main  show  "  will  need  to  be  convinced  that 
the  latter  is  the  more  valuable. 

The  Prevocational  and  Continuation  Schools  as  In- 
struments of  Self-discovery,  The  Prevocational  School. 
—  The  theory  back  of  the  prevocational  idea  has  already 
been  made  clear.  Parsons  says  that  "  a  knowledge  of 
each  of  the  great  classes  of  industry  by  practical  contact 
is  the  right  of  every  boy."  ^  Goodwin  says  that  there 
is  a  general  agreement  among  those  who  have  investi- 
gated the  subject  that  but  little  can  be  done  for  the  pupils 
who  do  not  go  on  to  high  school,  except  as  prevocational 
training,  manual  in  character,  is  introduced  into  the 
elementary  school .^  The  prevocational  school  is  the 
so-called  "  self-discovery  school."  It  aims  to  widen 
experiences,  to  present  problems,  to  set  the  attention  on 
projects,  to  teach  the  academic  studies  and  the  manual 
subjects  in  intimate  correlation,  to  give  children  a  well- 
planned  "  jack-of-all-trades  "  opportunity. 

Prevocational  Education  in  the  Public  Schools,  by 
Leavitt  and  Brown,  goes  into  the  subject  so  clearly  and 
succinctly  that  we  shall  here  call  attention  merely  to 
two  or  three  saHent  features,  and  answer  some  possible 
objections  to  the  work,  and  some  questions  which  arise. 

The  extent  of  the  school  program,  in  a  typical  plan, 
is  shown  by  the  Boston  list : 

'  Choosing  a  Vocation,  p.  61.  *  P.  130. 


86  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Academic  studies:  English  (including  penmanship,  com- 
position, spelling),  arithmetic,  history,  geography,  hygiene, 
science,  drawing. 

Manual  studies  for  boys:  Printing  and  bookbinding, 
metal  work,  electricity  and  power,  shoe  and  leather  work, 
clay  and  cement,  woodwork,  textiles,  paper  work,  agricul- 
ture.^ 

Manual  studies  for  girls:  Cooking,  dressmaking  and  mil- 
linery, household  management,  textiles,  sewing. 

Some  distinctive  features  of  the  prevocational  work 
in  American  cities  are  the  following :  the  employment 
of  teachers  who  have  had  actual  shop  experience ;  visits 
to  factories,  shops,  and  stores ;  assignment  of  projects 
away  from  the  school  premises,  with  boys  in  charge  as 
foremen ;  competitions  in  workmanship ;  the  use  of 
commercial  magazines  and  catalogues  for  study.  The 
Boston  prevocational  centers  have  a  Foreman's  Club, 
and  publish  a  magazine  called  The  Workmaster? 

Another  feature  must  already  have  become  obvious  — 
that  here  is  an  ideal  setting  for  effective  vocational 
guidance.  The  teachers  have  shop  connections,  have 
few  pupils  and  can  become  well  acquainted  with  them, 
know  the  requirements  of  the  occupations,  and  have 
abundant  opportunity  for  observing  the  abilities  of  the 
boys.  Naturally  enough  therefore,  vocational  guidance 
is  a  vital  part  of  the  work. 

^  It  must  not  be  thought  that  more  than  two  or  three  of  these  subjects 
are  offered  in  any  one  school,  or  that  any  great  proportion  of  pupils  are 
enrolled.    The  work  is  still  in  its  beginning. 

2  Leavitt  and  Brown,  p.  235.  See  also  App.  E  of  the  Minneapolis 
Report. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  87 

One  or  two  possible  misconceptions  concern  our  study 
of  vocational  guidance.  First,  is  the  prevocational 
work  for  the  relatively  dull  boy?  Practically,  the  work 
is  expensive  and  cannot  at  once  be  thrown  open  to  all ; 
hence  those  who  do  not  do  well  in  the  ordinary  classes 
are  often  selected  for  the  prevocational  classes.  Here 
many  show  at  once  that  it  was  the  work  of  the  regular 
classes  which  was  the  misfit,  rather  than  the  boys.  As 
a  matter  of  future  policy,  no  doubt  all  whose  parents 
desire  it  should  be  allowed  the  broader  program  of  the 
prevocational  school.  Second,  are  there  boys  with  the 
"  motor  type  "  of  mind  who  should  be  discovered  and 
assigned  to  this  work?  In  answer  to  this  question  we 
must  say  no ;  our  reasons  we  defer  to  a  later  chapter. 
Third,  is  the  name  "  prevocational "  well  used,  to 
describe  this  work?  Bawden  in  the  191 5  report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education  raises  this  question.^  The 
criticism  of  the  term  is  just  :  these  schools  are  for  self- 
discovery,  and  in  any  given  case  a  boy  may  discover 
here  that  he  should  be  a  teacher,  lawyer,  salesman,  or 
merchant  rather  than  a  plumber  or  a  printer.  In 
this  connection  it  is  interesting  that  in  one  of  the 
Boston  classes  in  June,  1915,  all  of  the  fifteen  graduates 
went  on  to  high  school.^  Fourth,  is  this  the  same  as  or 
different  from  "  manual  training  "  ?  The  discussion  as 
to  the  aim  of  manual  training  is  too  large  in  its  implica- 

ip.  223. 

2 See  Bonser,  "Is  'Prevocational'  a  Needed  or  Desirable  Term?" 
His  point  is  well  taken  :  the  intermediate  or  junior  high  school  should 
do  prevocational  work. 


88  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

tions  for  adequate  consideration  here.  We  may  infer, 
if  past  development  is  to  be  continued,  that  manual 
training  wall  cease  to  be  justified  by  its  supposed  friends 
on  the  basis  of  its  so-called  "  training  "  or  disciplinary 
value,  that  it  will  become  more  and  more  practical, 
and  that  it  will  finally  be  indistinguishable  from  what 
we  now  call  prevocational  work.  Fifth,  and  last,  is  this 
kind  of  education  for  the  boys  alone,  or  for  both  boys 
and  girls?  Our  answer  is  similar  to  that  given  to  the 
first  question.  The  work  is  new  and  more  expensive 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  classes ;  the  girls  have  protested 
less  against  the  all-academic  program,  therefore  they 
must  endure  it  longer.  Their  turn  for  a  broader  pro- 
gram will  come  —  indeed  it  has  come  in  some  schools. 

Continuation  Schools,  in  their  General  Effect  on  the 
Vocation,  are  Similar  to  the  Prevocational  Schools.  — 
Wisconsin,  Ohio,  and  Massachusetts  are  the  three  states 
which  have  done  most  with  continuation  schools.  So 
much  experience  has  been  gained  that  we  are  now  re- 
ferring less  and  less  to  European  example.^  This  ex- 
perience is  convincing  us  that  the  continuation  school, 
though  completely  different  in  organization  from  the 
prevocational  school,  must  do  the  same  work  —  must 
help  the  child  to  find  himself.  The  data  for  this  con- 
viction are  so  clear  that  it  has  been  said  that  the 
continuation  school  should  not  even  be  called  a  finding 
but  rather  a  reclaiming  school  (see  statistics.  Chapter 

^  Some  of  the  limitations  in  the  German  continuation  schools  have 
recently  been  pointed  out;  see  Myers,  Geo.  E.,  pp.  9-11,  14,  16. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  89 

VI).  Assistant  Superintendent  Thompson  of  Boston 
says  that  four  fifths  of  the  working  boys  under  sixteen 
are  merely  messengers.  President  Miles  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin State  Board  of  Industrial  Education  states  that 
"  from  fourteen  to  sixteen,  eighty-seven  per  cent  of 
working  children  are  in  dead-end,  blind-alley  jobs."  ^ 
Thompson  says  that  about  one  half  the  girls  in  the  con- 
tinuation school  are  actually  engaged  in  industrial  pur- 
suits, and  that  some  real  continuation  work  can  be  done 
for  them,  as  well  as  for  the  few  boys  who  are  in  machine 
or  printing  shops.^  It  is  evident  from  these  studies 
that  the  children  of  the  continuation  school  have  not 
found  themselves,  and  that  the  manifest  duty  of  the 
school  is  to  assist  them  in  just  such  a  way  as  does  the 
prevocational  school  or  the  "regular"  school  with  the 
enriched  and  varied  program.  "  General  improvement  " 
classes  are  organized  in  Wisconsin  and  in  Massachusetts 
(Boston)  continuation  schools,  and  vocational  guidance 
naturally  forms  a  large  part  of  the  work. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  ignore  the  present  employment 
of  the  continuation-school  pupil ;  it  should  be  used  as  a 
probationary  experience.  Children  should  be  trained  to 
be  efficient  in  to-day's  work,  to  broaden  their  vision 
and  their  business  experience  in  their  work  as  errand 
runners,  to  select  their  real  vocations  wisely,  to  prepare 

1  Nat.  Assn.  Manufacturers,  p.  30.     See  other  data  in  Chapter  Yl. 

2  Wisconsin  experience  in  regard  to  girls  has  led  to  a  different  conclu- 
sion; see  Wisconsin  State  Board  of  Industrial  Education,  1914,  pp. 
476-483,  especially  p.  479.  Wisconsin  has  recently  extended  the  con- 
tinuation school  age  to  17. 


90  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

themselves  definitely,  and  to  recognize  and  seize  oppor- 
tunities which  present  themselves.  These  things  the 
continuation  schools  are  trying  to  do,  with  what  success 
may  be  judged  by  an  examination  of  the  growing  litera- 
ture on  these  important  experiments.^ 

Definite  Preparation  for  the  Occupation.  —  We  have 
so  far  considered  the  child's  place  in  the  school,  the 
school  organization  as  related  to  vocational  guidance, 
the  possibihties  for  guidance  in  the  curriculum  and  in 
student  and  club  activities,  and  the  prevocational  and 
continuation  schools  as  instruments  of  self -disco  very. 
We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  actual  voca- 
tional training  given  by  the  school  —  the  preparation 
for  the  occupation. 

Our  study  of  the  continuation  school  shows  us  that 
as  a  matter  of  general  policy  it  is  impossible  to  give  real 
vocational  training  before  the  sixteenth  year.  And 
even  if  we  begin  our  definite  preparation  at  that  age, 
experience  shows  us  that  we  must  still  be  ready  for 
changes  of  mind  and  must  provide  also  for  the  large 
number  who  may  not  yet  have  reached  any  decision. 
Thus  we  must  constantly  be  ready  to  apply  vocational 
guidance.  With  these  provisos,  what  shall  be  the  nature 
of  the  education  which  our  secondary  schools  shall 
offer  ?  Obviously,  the  high  schools  must  offer  continued 
experimentation  or  broad  curricula  for  those  who  do 
not  yet  wish  vocational  training,  and  diversified  voca- 

^  For  an  account  of  the  Boston  work,  see  Circular  of  Information  relat- 
ing to  Continuation  Schools,  Boston  Public  Schools,  Xo.  26,  1915. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  9 1 

tional  preparation  for  others.  Hence  the  need  for  edu- 
cational and  vocational  guidance  throughout  the  high 
school  is  evident. 

What  should  be  the  nature  of  the  vocational  training  ? 
Fortunately  there  is  a  body  of  experience  from  which  to 
draw.  Schneider,  Hanus,  Gillette,  Snedden,  Leavitt, 
Thompson,  Lapp  and  Mote,  Eaton  and  Stevens,  and  the 
Richmond,  MinneapoHs,  and  Cleveland  Surveys  have 
put  into  available  form  what  has  been  learned. 

It  is  needless  in  this  book  to  treat  of  the  many  kinds 
of  vocational  education  which  are  actually  in  opera- 
tion, and  of  the  problems  yet  to  be  solved.  On  these 
problems  are  working  both  the  layman  and  the  educa- 
tor, and  in  the  newer  plans,  employer  and  teacher  are 
joining  in  the  guidance  of  the  high-school  student. 
We  refer,  of  course,  to  the  cooperative  or  part-time  plan 
explained  in  Schneider's  book,  and  now  in  operation 
in  many  parts  of  the  country.^ 

No  one  can  say  what  will  be  the  terms  upon  which 
this  cooperative  labor  and  education  will  be  carried  on, 
when  experience  has  taught  us.  Devine  said  at  the 
Second  Vocational  Guidance  Conference  :  ^  "  Educa- 
tion and  industry  should  get  together,  but  it  should  be 
on  education's  terms,  not  on  industry's  terms."  It  is 
the  paramount  duty  of  the  school  and  the  employer 
to  agree  on  such  terms  as  will  be  beneficial  for  both 
the   future  worker   and   society.     In   this   cooperation 

'  See  also  McCann  and  Stimpson. 

2  Page  I,  quoting  Henderson  in  Pay  Day. 


92  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

it  is  certain  that  both  industry  and  education  have  much 
to  learn,  and  that  both  will  profit  from  the  association.^ 

With  all  the  efficiency  developed  in  vocational  train- 
ing, the  surprising  fact  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
many  boys  and  girls  decide  on  a  vocation,  learn  the 
elements  of  that  vocation  in  a  high  school,  and  succeed 
in  their  school  work,  but  in  the  process  of  the  learning 
broaden  their  horizon  and  choose  another  occupation. 
It  would  seem  that  even  speciaHzation  must  not  be  too 
narrow  —  vocational  training  must  not  close  the  door  of 
opportunity  —  it  must  open  several  avenues  at  once. 
The  boy  or  girl  is  likely  to  experience  a  progressive 
rising  and  clarifying  of  the  vocational  aim. 

The  Development  of  Good  Traits  of  Character.  — 
We  have  already  discussed  the  questions  of  respon- 
sibility and  persistence,  and  we  have  shown  how 
play  and  student  activities  aid  in  the  development  of 
persistence,  habits  of  success,  initiative,  responsibihty, 
and  power  to  cooperate.  All  these,  however,  good  as 
they  are,  relate  in  the  main  to  personal  efficiency : 
their  bearing  on  the  habit  of  kindness  and  unselfish 
living  is  not  so  direct.  We  shall  see  in  a  later  place 
that  mere  personal  efficiency  will  not  of  itself  solve  the 
perplexing  problems  of  our  social  life.  The  teacher  and 
the  counselor,  therefore,  must  strive  for  a  social  efficiency 
which  relates  itself  to  the  commandment  to  love  one's 
neighbor  as  oneself.  No  student  of  vocational  guidance 
can  tolerate  the  unsocial  scramble  for  money  or  power. 
^See  Schneider,  Education  for,  etc.,  pp.  75-76. 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  93 

It  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  make  character  count ; 
without  it  all  guidance  is  vain. 

Some  educators  are  fond  of  saying  that  this  ideal  is 
a  matter  of  religion  as  distinct  from  morals.  Be  this 
as  it  may,  the  school  cannot  escape  responsibility  for  the 
habits  developed  by  the  children  in  the  school.  In 
the  first  place,  the  school  can  help  to  prevent  the  many 
breaches  of  good  taste  and  kindness  due  to  thought- 
lessness. By  example,  discussion,  systems  of  self- 
government,  and  punishments  the  school  can  put  before 
the  pupil  the  duty  of  consideration  for  the  welfare  of 
others.  In  a  well-ordered  school  atmosphere  it  should' 
be  made  hard  for  the  selfish  person,  and  unselfishness 
should  have  the  reward  of  approval,  respect,  and  satis- 
faction. 

In  the  second  place,  the  school  should  plan  coopera- 
tive tasks,  both  in  academic  and  in  manual  work,  so 
that  the  pupils  will  have  training  in  joint  action.  This 
cooperative  action  should  be  so  ordered  as  to  show  the 
pupils  their  own  interdependence ;  for  example,  an 
investigation  in  community  civics  or  the  construction 
of  a  dozen  desks  may  be  planned  in  such  a  way  that  the 
advantages  of  cooperation  become  apparent.  Team 
work,  obedience  to  rules  and  principles  of  conduct, 
and  loyalty  to  aims,  motives,  and  ideals  may  be  taught 
in  these  ways,  as  well  as  in  the  play  and  athletic  efforts 
of  the  pupils.  "  School  spirit,"  with  its  loyalty  to  the 
worthy  purposes  and  activities  of  the  institution,  fur- 
nishes a  large  opportunity  for  the  wise  teacher,  principal, 


94  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

and  vocational  counselor.  No  doubt  these  loyalties 
are  far  more  efficient  and  lasting  than  any  based  on  mere 
personality. 

Third,  the  attitude  and  habit  of  service  may  be  cul- 
tivated. In  the  manual  training  work  articles  may  be 
made  by  the  younger  children  for  the  use  of  the  older, 
and  vice  versa.  Useful  tasks  for  parents,  city,  school, 
and  companions  may  be  planned  and  encouraged  in 
many  of  the  classes ;  and  the  civics  and  history  recita- 
ations  may  bring  out  the  thought  of  service  among 
adults.  There  should  be  no  cant  in  the  teaching;  the 
teacher  may  deal  with  conditions  in  the  business  and 
industrial  world  candidly,  but  may  point  out  the  better 
way  and  the  many  indications  that  progress  is  being' 
made. 

In  dealing  with  questions  of  personal  morahty  and 
self-control  the  task  is  more  difficult.  Negative  advice 
—  abstinence  —  has  been  to  a  large  extent  the  tradi- 
tional method.  Such  a  method  has  little  effect  unless 
it  can  be  grounded  on  concrete  facts.  Thus,  there  may 
be  cited  the  large  and  growing  number  of  firms  which 
object  to  the  use  of  liquors  on  the  part  of  their  employees.^ 
On  the  other  hand,  negative  advice  based  on  physio- 
logical considerations  is  notoriously  dangerous.  There  is 
almost  always  an  inevitable  exaggeration  of  physical 
effects,  which  for  many  boys  vitiates  such  advice.    Again, 

*  Some  of  them  reject  all  users  of  liquors,  but  use  a  decoy  question  in 
their  application  blanks:  "Are  you  a  heavy  or  a  moderate  drinker?" 
or  "Do  you  drink  liquors?    To  what  extent?" 


EDUCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  95 

fear  does  not  deter,  nor  does  mere  knowledge;  it  is 
known  that  some  men  who  know  in  detail  the  harmful 
effects  of  dangerous  drugs  fall  victims  to  their  use. 

Substitution  is  no  doubt  the  safer  and  more  effective 
way.  If  self-respect,  honesty,  and  temperance  can  be 
learned  through  actions  in  which  tliey  play  an  important 
and  necessary  part,  the  opposite  qualities  would  be 
avoided,  in  part  if  not  altogether. 

The  development  of  good  traits  of  character  should 
be  the  ubiquitous  concern  of  the  vocational  guide. 
Though  our  discussion  here  is  brief  and  inadequate, 
the  character  motive  should  be  read  into  our  treatment 
of  all  the  other  topics  of  the  book. 

Summary.  —  The  aims  of  education,  and  of  educa- 
tional guidance,  from  the  viewpoint  of  vocational 
guidance,  are  as  follows :  to  study  each  child  as  a  sepa- 
rate problem ;  to  make  the  school  organization  flexible 
and  to  provide  for  the  teacher's  playing  the  part  of 
counselor ;  to  turn  to  account  the  vocational  possibilities 
of  the  school  program  and  to  add  to  the  program  an 
effective  course  on  occupations  ;  to  encourage  and  direct 
such  student  and  club  activities  as  will  contribute  to  the 
finding  of  vocational  clews  ;  to  use  the  prevocational  and 
continuation  school  for  self -discovery,  conserv^ation, 
and  reclamation;  to  provide  in  schools  of  secondary 
and  college  grade  definite  preparation  for  the  occupa- 
tion;  and  to  develop,  with  all,  good  traits  of  character. 
We  have  seen  that  much  progress  toward  the  realiza- 
tion of  these  aims  has  already  been  registered. 


96  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Our  next  task  is  to  study  the  methods  of  guidance 
which  are  directly  concerned  with  individual  counsel. 
It  will  become  apparent,  as  the  study  proceeds,  that  the 
task  of  counseling  is  much  more  dijSicult  than  the  task 
of  guidance  through  educational  experiences.  This 
fact  will  present  two  implications :  there  is  need  for 
keeping  boys  and  girls  under  the  school  influence  as 
long  as  possible ;  and  there  is  need  for  making  that 
school  opportunity  count  for  educational  and  vocational 
guidance.  When  hundreds  of  boys  say  that  they  left 
grammar  school  before  completing  the  eighth  grade 
because  they  did  not  think  it  worth  while  to  graduate, 
as  they  actually  said  in  a  recent  New  York  investiga- 
tion, it  discloses  the  character  of  the  problems  ahead 
of  us. 

These  problems  are  being  attacked,  with  more  and 
more  approach  to  a  systematic  method.  In  the  ap- 
proach, we  find  the  study  of  conditions  in  the  occupa- 
tions helpful.  To  a  review  of  these  conditions  we  shall 
come,  first  examining  the  plans  for  counseling  individuals 
which  are  in  common  use. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Vocational   Counseling  and   the   Work   of   the 

Counselor 

The  Need  for  Counseling  Individuals.  —  "  If  I  had  had 

vocational  advice  when  I  was  a  boy,"  recently  remarked  a 
college  professor  of  sociology,  "  I  should  probably  have 
been  guided  into  being  a  gardener."  The  purpose  of 
the  statement  was  to  show  the  danger  in  vocational 
direction.  Admitting  that  an  error  would  have  been 
made  in  the  case  of  the  professor,  is  that  a  reason  for  no 
guidance?  If  the  speaker  had  examined  his  own  past 
experiences,  he  would  without  doubt  find  that  he  did 
have  vocational  counsel  —  that  he  had  advice,  encourage- 
ment, and  direction  while  taking  all  the  important  steps 
in  his  career.  Then  how  about  the  millions  who  drift 
blindly  into  and  out  of  jobs?  Shall  we  fear  the  error 
of  making  one  less  teacher,  and  thereby  create  scores  to 
join  the  army  of  the  misemployed? 

It  may  be  replied  that  with  the  plans  outlined  under 
our  study  of  educational  guidance  the  individual  will  be 
enabled  to  find  himself,  and  no  actual  counsel  in  the  shape 
of  personal  conferences  will  be  needed.  There  are 
several  negations  of  this  position.     First,  the  enriched 

H  97 


98  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUroANCE  MOVEMENT 

program  often  means  increased  bewilderment  to  in- 
dividual pupils  unless  they  have  sympathetic  aid  in 
making  the  decisions  which  the  large  range  of  choice 
entails.  The  course  on  vocations  must  necessarily  be 
general  in  its  scope ;  applications  must  be  made  concrete 
and  individual,  and  this  involves  personal  conferences. 
Vocational  guidance  cannot  stop  with  furnishing  a  wealth 
of  knowledge  of  opportunities  and  occupational  in- 
formation ;  valuable  as  these  are,  they  may  still  leave 
the  boy  or  girl  far  from  the  desirable  goal.  The  teacher 
who  sets  out  to  conduct  a  course  in  occupational  in- 
formation will  soon  find  individuals  coming  to  him  for 
personal  advice ;  thus  counseling  becomes  unavoidable. 
Educational  guidance  will  probably  mean  not  less  but 
more  counseling. 

A  second  reason  why  counseling  will  be  needed  is  that 
with  the  best  the  school  can  do  the  child  cannot  be  made 
fully  to  understand  the  importance  of  his  decisions,  and 
cannot  be  induced  to  make  the  most  of  his  opportunities. 
There  will  be  boys  and  girls  who  will  derive  little  benefit 
from  our  elaborate  plans  while  in  school,  but  will  be  ripe 
for  counsel  after  they  have  tried  three  or  four  jobs.  Then 
the  counselor  must  be  at  hand. 

Third,  until  we  perfect  our  educational  guidance  there 
will  be  work  enough  with  those  who  are  employed  but 
in  great  need  of  advice.  As  one  of  the  letters  to  The 
Vocation  Bureau  states  it :  "I  notice  that  your  book, 
Choosing  a  Vocation,  is  widely  circulated,  but  cannot 
think  that  it  is  of  much  advantage  to  the  individual 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  99 

unless  he  has  direct  connection  with  some  vocation 
bureau."  ^ 

The  Questions  with  which  Counseling  Deals.  —  We 
shall  confine  our  study  in  this  chapter  to  the  legitimate 
and  valuable  factors  of  the  process  of  counseling  in- 
dividuals, leaving  to  the  next  chapter  the  criticism 
of  some  questionable  practices  which  often  pass  for 
vocational  guidance.  We  shall  here  consider  the  fol- 
lowing topics:  (i)  The  use  of  tests;  (2)  Analyses  of 
personal  quahties ;  (3)  Record  cards ;  (4)  Guidance 
through  placement ;  (5)  Employment  supervision ; 
(6)  The  work  of  the  employment  manager ;  (7)  Some 
special  plans ;  (8)  The  collection,  classification,  and  use 
of  occupational  information ;  (9)  The  equipment  of  the 
counselor. 

The  Use  of  Tests.  —  Almost  any  kind  of  a  test  is  called 
a  "  psychological  test  "  nowadays,  and  the  usual  effect 
of  the  term  is  to  give  such  tests  a  vogue  without  proper 
inquiry  as  to  their  utiUty.  This  overestimation  of  the 
potential  and  actual  value  of  laboratory  tests  has  done 
much  harm  to  the  cause  of  vocational  guidance,  and  will 
be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter.  We  are  concerned  here 
with  what  can  be  done. 

Dr.  Ayres,  writing  in  October,  1913,  says: 

Even  after  all  allowances  are  made,  the  inevitable  conclu- 
sion remains  that  in  vocational  guidance  the  greatest  field 

'  For  further  discussion  of  the  need  of  counseling,  and  the  coopera- 
tion required,  see  Maclaurin,  Readings,  pp.  16-17;  ^^d  Hanus,  Read- 
ings, p.  92. 


lOO  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

of  immediate  development  for  psychological  tests  is  in  choos- 
ing persons  for  positions  rather  than  in  selecting  positions 
for  persons.^ 

Now  since  the  teacher,  the  counselor,  and  the  young 
person  himself  are  concerned  with  the  second  of  these  two 
operations,  that  of  finding  a  vocation  or  position  for  a 
boy  or  girl,  psychological  tests  do  not  appear  to  offer 
help  to  them.  Rather  the  tests  seem  to  aid  only  the 
employer,  who  of  course  has  the  position  and  wishes  to 
select  the  person  to  fill  it. 

On  the  same  topic,  Bloomfield,  in  Youth,  School,  and 
Vocation,  says : 

It  appears  that  if  facilities  for  competent  research  are 
provided,  the  general  decision  concerning  relative  fitness 
for  (i)  advanced  education  for  expert  scientific,  technical, 
or  professional  service ;  (2)  clerical  or  office  work ;  and  (3) 
mechanical  or  trade  and  factory  work  can  be  based  in  part 
upon  a  psychological  inventory  taken  as  early  as  the  age  of 
fifteen  (pp.  60-62). 

These  two  statements  seem  to  be  the  most  hopeful 
views  of  the  situation  with  regard  to  the  present  contri- 
bution of  psychology  to  vocational  guidance.  (Some 
others  seem  to  be  too  sanguine  and  are  treated  in  the  next 
chapter.)  Let  the  counselor  get  what  comfort  he  may 
from  these  hypothetical  advantages ;  the  fact  remains 
that  much  is  yet  to  be  done  before  practical  use  can  be 
made  of  psychological  tests. 

^  Proc.  of  Nat.  V.-G.  Assn.,  1913,  p.  37. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  lOI 

What  then  can  tests  do?  In  the  first  place,  inves- 
tigations such  as  those  being  carried  on  in  Cincinnati 
may  finally  give  helpful  results  to  guide  us.  Mrs. 
Woolley's  plan  is  to  make  frequent  tests  of  groups  of 
children  in  school  and  at  work  —  tests  which  are  of 
great  variety  and  several  times  repeated  —  and  to  keep 
a  record  of  the  successes  of  these  children  in  the  occu- 
pations. She  then  hopes  to  be  able  to  find  a  basis  of 
correlation  between  the  records  in  the  tests  and  in  the 
occupations.^  This  experiment  suggests  a  point  so  far 
almost  completely  neglected  by  the  psychologists  —  the 
testing  of  a  person's  capacity  for  improving.  Perhaps 
general  "  improvabihty  "  cannot  be  tested;  clearly, 
however,  it  is  more  important  in  a  beginner  than  present 
knowledge  or  skill,  and  frequently  bears  little  relation 
to  initial  performance. 

In  the  second  place,  laboratory  tests  may  for  the 
present  be  abandoned,  so  far  as  vocational  guidance  is 
concerned,  and  actual  standardized  work  tasks  sub- 
stituted. The  records  of  the  child  in  such  tasks,  and 
his  capacity  for  improvement,  if  a  series  of  tests  can 
measure  it,  may  be  taken  as  a  basis  for  forecasting 

*  See  her  plans  and  preliminary  report  in  the  references  in  the  bibliog- 
raphy. (Her  conclusions  that  there  are  types  of  mind  will  be  discussed 
in  the  next  chapter.)  It  is  only  fair  to  note  that  the  tests  Mrs.  Woolley 
has  used  are  those  for  psychological  ages,  and  not  at  all  for  vocational 
aptitudes.  Further,  even  psychological  ages  tests  have  not  been  stand- 
ardized or  agreed  upon  for  a  period  of  years.  Again,  even  if  positive 
correlations  between  tests  and  occupational  success  are  found,  we  can 
never  be  sure  that  other  occupations  might  not  have  proved  more  suc- 
cessful. 

LITERARY 

8TAT'=^   TP.>  -H'-.R5    COLLEGE 
SANTA    EASBAftA.    CALIFORNIA 


I02  THE   VOCATIONAL- GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

probable  success.^  The  achievement  tasks  and  prevo- 
cational  work,  of  which  we  spoke  in  the  last  chapter, 
would  go  far  toward  becoming  adequate  tests  of  ability. 
The  part-time  or  cooperative  plan  will  serve  as  an  actual 
trial  of  the  worker's  ability,  if  the  entrance  into  the  work 
is  carefully  supervised. 

School  examinations  may  be  much  improved,  and  may 
in  time  become  the  best  of  all  "  psychological  tests."  If 
the  psychological  investigations  were  made  in  the  actual 
schoolroom  in  cooperation  with  the  teachers,  it  seems 
likely  that  much  more  progress  would  be  made  than  we 
can  hope  to  make  with  researches  apart  from  the  school. 
Thus  the  psychologist  may  study  the  interests  of  pupils 
as  expressed  in  their  choices  of  studies,  games,  and  sub- 
jects for  oral  and  written  composition ;  aid  the  teacher 
in  grading  for  difficulty  a  series  of  lessons  in  arithmetic ; 
study  the  correlation  between  school  marks  in  EngHsh 
and  in  science ;  help  the  teacher  in  planning  better 
examinations  in  geography ;  plot  individual  learning 
curves  for  records  in  a  series  of  examinations  in  stenog- 
raphy. The  cooperation  of  the  trained  psychologist, 
the  vocational  counselor,  the  teacher,  the  employment 
supervisor,  and  the  employment  manager,  may  in  time 
yield  some  examinations  which  will  aid  in  the  work  of 
selecting  a  vocation. 

Analyses  of  Personal  Qualities.  —  The  attempt  to 
name  and  classify  the  human  virtues  is  as  old  as  the  time 
of  Homer ;   we  shall  not  try  to  add  another  schedule. 

'  See  Thompson,  1915  Report  of  Comm.  of  Educ,  p.  291. 


VOCATIONAL   COUNSELING  IO3 

The  review  of  long  lists  of  desirable  qualities  is  a  favorite 
exercise  of  the  business  man  who  is  asked  to  address  a 
body  of  high  school  students.  But  what  the  students 
need  is  the  experience  of  actual  situations  in  which  these 
virtues  play  a  part.  Thus,  a  better  lesson  can  be  drawn 
from  a  class  discussion  on  the  question,  "  What  would  you 
do  if  you  found  a  counterfeit  half-dollar  in  your  pocket?  " 
than  on  the  question,  "  Why  is  honesty  necessary  in 
business?  " 

In  the  Grand  Rapids  plan  "  the  elements  of  charac- 
ter that  make  for  success  in  life,"  are  taught  through 
biography,  discussion,  compositions,  and  self-analysis. 
(Davis  states  that  the  last  must  be  used  with  dis- 
cretion.) The  book.  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance,  con- 
tains directions,  sample  compositions,  and  bibliographies. 

Several  high  schools  {e.g.  in  Los  Angeles  and  Boston) 
attempt  to  obtain  a  composite  judgment  on  each  pupil, 
as  a  basis  for  office  information  in  regard  to  him,  and  for 
possible  recommendation  to  an  employer.  A  list  of 
pupils  is  presented  to  each  teacher,  the  names  being 
followed  by  columns  labeled  at  the  top :  Reliability ; 
Scholarship ;  Initiative ;  Appearance ;  General  Char- 
acter, etc.  The  marks  used  designate  Excellent,  Good, 
Fair,  and  Poor,  and  the  teacher  fills  the  columns  for  what- 
ever students  he  knows  well  enough.  The  results  are 
tabulated  in  the  principal's  office.  They  show,  for 
example,  that  three  teachers  have  marked  Harry  WTiite 
excellent  in  initiative  ;  ten  have  marked  him  good  ;  and 
two,  fair.     Such  judgments  should  be  of  value,  though 


I04  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

too  often  the  teachers  have  a  very  limited  experience 
with  the  children.^ 

It  must  be  noted  that  virtues  are  specific  things  and 
not  general ;  they  are  carried  over  from  one  situation 
to  another  only  as  the  two  situations  have  similar  char- 
acteristics, or  as  special  effort  is  made  to  secure  the 
transfer.  Thus,  a  boy  who  is  industrious  in  his  school 
work  will  be  industrious  in  his  home  duties  only  as  the 
two  situations  are  similar,  both  possessing  such  elements 
or  ideals  perhaps  as  emulation,  graduated  progress, 
intelligent  supervision,  and  satisfactory  results.  Much 
of  the  "  moral  suasion  "  used  on  children  is  based  on 
the  theory  of  general  discipline,  as  we  shall  see  in  the 
next  chapter.  Children  are  told  that  they  must  learn 
persistence,  as  if  this  quality  could  be  absorbed  from 
following  the  plow  and  then  automatically  transferred 
to  the  task  of  studying  Latin.  It  is  now  seen  that 
good  habits  must  be  consciously  and  persistently  re- 
lated to  the  second  field  of  action  before  there  can  be 
any  great  Hkelihood  that  they  will  be  transferred. 

Self-analysis,  too,  should  be  based  on  one's  measuring 
himself  by  concrete  tasks  rather  than  by  qualities  ab- 
stracted from  their  environment.  An  illustration  from 
the  experience  of  Miss  Ginn,  Director  of  the  Voca- 
tional Guidance  Department  of  the  Boston  schools, 
will  indicate  a  legitimate  and  helpful  method  of  self- 

*  Teachers  who  have  had  to  fill  out  a  statement  upon  a  boy  who  has 
applied  for  a  bond  will  realize  how  little  the  classroom  work  tells  about 
him. 


VOCATIONAL   COUNSELING  105 

analysis.  When  she  was  in  charge  of  an  eighth  grade 
class  of  girls  she  asked  them  to  state  what  they  intended 
to  be,  and  eighty-five  per  cent  gave  stenography  as  their 
choice.  After  a  few  days  had  passed  the  girls  were  asked 
in  a  class  exercise  to  make  a  list  of  the  qualifications  of 
a  good  stenographer.  They  responded  with  many  items, 
all  of  which  were  placed  on  the  board  and  allowed  to  re- 
main some  days.  Then  the  girls  who  had  chosen  stenog- 
raphy were  asked  to  measure  their  own  personal  qualities 
by  the  requirements  there  stated.  The  same  exercise 
was  carried  out  with  other  occupations.  A  few  weeks 
later,  when  another  poll  was  taken,  the  per  cent  of 
stenographers  had  dwindled  to  eleven,  showing  that  the 
exercise  had  made  the  girls  more  critical  in  their  thinking. 

Character  analysis,  then,  like  psychological  testing, 
must  be  based  on  the  actual  tasks  which  children  will 
be  called  on  to  do. 

There  are  two  characteristics,  or  habits  of  conduct, 
or  states  of  mind  —  whatever  they  be  called  —  which 
seem  to  be  present  as  common  elements  in  most  of  the 
situations  of  life.  Therefore  they  may  be  spoken  of 
in  general  terms,  and  they  possess  a  large  degree  of 
transferability.  We  refer  to  the  habit  of  cooperative 
service  and  the  habit  of  succeeding.  Manifestly  it  is  the 
school's  duty  to  see  that  these  powers  have  play  in  all 
legitimate  ways. 

Record  Cards.  —  The  best  practice  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  counselor  rather  than  the  child  should  fill  in 
most  of  the  answers  on  the  record  blank.     If  the  child 


lo6  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

does  the  work  unaided,  either  the  question  may  be  mis- 
understood, or  the  answer  made  to  fit  what  the  child 
thinks  is  wanted,  or  the  temptation  to  vary  from  the 
exact  truth  may  be  presented.  Frequently  the  counselor 
will  find  it  necessary  to  ask  three  or  four  questions,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  satisfactory  statement  to  fill  one  space. 

What  questions  shall  be  asked?  The  literature  of 
vocational  guidance  is  full  of  sample  record  cards,^  and 
the  total  list  of  questions  asked  would  range  from  the 
now  notorious,  "  Does  your  mind  concentrate  or  skip 
around?"  to  the  query,  "What  service  to  the  com- 
munity are  you  planning  to  render  through  your  voca- 
tion? " 

Of  all  these  blanks  the  simplest  are  the  most  workable. 
For  the  average  child  two  thirds  of  the  questions  on  a 
card  with  many  spaces  to  fill  have  no  significance  what- 
ever. It  seems  best,  therefore,  to  ask  a  minimum 
number  of  questions  and  to  allow  space  for  comments 
on  other  significant  facts  discovered  in  the  conferences. 
Thus  the  teacher  or  counselor  and  the  child  are  enabled 
to  save  time  and  to  concentrate  on  vital  matters.  The 
blank  with  forty  or  fifty  questions  is  usually  never  all 
filled  in,  and  is  unwieldy  for  actual  use. 

The  Boston  cards  on  pages  192-193  of   Youth,  School, 

and  Vocation  are  concise  and  workable.     This  question 

might  be  added,  perhaps ;   Use  of  time  outside  of  school 

1  Parsons,  pp.  17-46;  Bloomfield,  Youth,  etc.,  pp.  179-206;  The 
School  and  the  Start  in  Life,  pp.  39-69;  Readings,  p.  131;  Report  of 
U.  S.  Com.  of  Labor,  1910,  Chap.  XV,  p.  441 ;  Davis,  Vocational  and 
Moral  Guidance,  pp.  78-So,  143-144,  253-272. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  107 

hours,  in  work,  recreation,  and  clubs.  The  question  on 
future  vocation  may  be  broadened  to  include  the  three  to 
five  occupations  which  are  under  consideration,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  present  preference.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  card  could  be  filled  in  the  composite  record  of 
teachers'  opinions  suggested  above. 

It  is  a  serious  question  whether  or  not  unfavorable  data 
should  be  put  on  cards.  There  are  some  strong  reasons 
against  the  practice.  First,  the  cards  should  be  trans- 
mitted through  the  grades,  and  it  is  unfair  to  the  child  to 
prejudice  him  in  the  eyes  of  a  new  teacher.  Second, 
the  importance  of  unfavorable  comments,  if  placed  on 
record,  is  likely  to  be  exaggerated  —  they  strike  the 
attention  of  the  reader  and  suggest  more  than  they 
should.  Third,  we  guide  the  child  by  means  of  his 
successes  and  not  through  his  errors ;  his  mistakes  may 
often  best  be  forgotten.  Keeping  them  on  record 
after  they  are  corrected  is  a  poor  policy. 

Even  such  questions  as  those  relating  to  physical  dis- 
abilities, past  sicknesses,  and  "  hereditary  "  weaknesses 
are  open  to  objection,  on  similar  grounds.  Hurried 
judgments  on  these  objectional  questions  are  useless  if 
not  injurious.  Some  cards  examined  recently  bore  such 
statements  as:  hereditary  tendencies  —  rheumatism, 
scar  over  eye  ;  past  illnesses  —  measles,  appendicitis, 
scarlet  fever  (no  other  statement).  Such  statements 
tell  nothing  about  the  vocation.  There  is  no  general 
agreement  on  the  complex  questions  of  heredity,  and 
it  seems  useless  to  parade  before  the  child  the  possibility 


108  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

of  duplicating  in  his  life  the  diseases  of  his  parents. 
Teachers  are  ordinarily  not  well  enough  informed  to  be 
discriminating,  and  frequently  attach  more  importance 
to  the  influence  of  heredity  than  do  those  who  have 
studied  the  subject  more  deeply.  An  examination  upon 
entering  every  job,  as  is  enforced  in  Boston,  and  a 
general  question  on  the  child's  blank,  such  as,  "  Are 
there  any  common  occupations  or  kinds  of  work  he 
should  avoid?  "  would  seem  to  be  sufficient. 

Religion  should  not  be  entered  on  a  card.  If  place- 
ment is  the  issue,  a  general  question  about  regular  work 
and  holidays  will  serve  the  purpose. 

We  have  said  above  that  the  record  cards  should 
be  passed  on  with  the  pupil.  This  does  not  mean  that 
they  should  remain  unchanged.  Horton  ^  tells  of  the 
advantages  of  a  new  card  each  semester,  and  Mrs. 
Woolley  speaks  of  the  child's  being  followed  through  the 
school  by  a  kind  of  cumulative  judgment  of  his  various 
teachers.^  The  Boston  card  provides  for  changes  of 
plans.  The  card  should  bear  spaces  for  additional  in- 
formation at  any  time,  and  for  the  date  and  significant 
facts  of  each  conference  between  the  child  and  his 
counselor.' 

Guidance  through  Placement.  Its  Advantages.  — 
The   placement  office   has   undeniable   advantages  for 

ip.  40.  2  Proc.  of  Sec.  Nat.  Conference,  p.  85. 

*  This  counselor  may  be  the  child's  teacher,  though  there  should  be 
provision  for  distinguishing  in  the  record  the  occasions  when  the  pupil 
is  counseled  by  the  specialist  in  vocational  guidance  in  the  school  or 
vocation  bureau. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  lOQ 

exercising  guidance :  the  applicant  is  receptive  to  advice  ; 
the  ofl&cers  are  in  close  touch  with  the  needs  of  occupa- 
tions; placement  saves  the  young  people  from  the 
dangers  involved  in  wandering  about  in  the  streets  and 
offices  looking  for  work ;  the  placement  officers  are  in  a 
position  to  do  good  "  follow-up  "  work ;  the  reaction  on 
the  school  can  be  made  effective  for  better  school  work. 

The  Disadvantages  of  Guidance  through  Placement.  — 
On  the  other  hand,  there  are  certam  dangers  involved  in 
guidance  through  placement.  In  the  first  place,  the 
name  placement  itself  suggests  inactivity  on  the  part  of 
the  applicant,  —  that  he  is  a  pawn  to  be  moved  into  his 
space.  "  Pegs  "  are  to  be  fitted  into  "  holes."  If  we 
could  see  certain  economic  and  social  conditions  im- 
proved, it  might  be  far  better  for  young  people  to  find 
their  own  places.  This  proposition  we  shall  discuss  in 
Chapter  VIII. 

Second,  placement  is  never  finished ;  it  is  a  process 
which  must  be  so  often  repeated  that  the  machinery  for 
adequate  placement  in  a  city  would  be  so  unwieldy  as  to 
be  very  likely  to  fall  by  its  own  weight.  The  Boston 
Placement  Bureau  manages,  apparently,  to  keep  sight 
of  the  individual,  but  the  report  of  the  continuation 
school  shows  that  the  bureau  secured  places  for  only 
one  and  eight  tenths  per  cent  of  the  children  enrolled 
in  the  school.  In  order  to  place  and  to  follow  up 
even  this  number  an  elaborate  card  system  must  be 
prepared  and  kept  as  nearly  up  to  date  as  the  facilities 
of  the  bureau  will  allow.     No  one  can  prophesy  what 


no  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

kind  of  records  would  be  needed  for  placing  all  the  work- 
ing children  of  Boston,  or  whether  it  would  be  possible 
to  organize  the  work  in  one  office.  It  seems  certain  that 
a  system  so  extensive  would  lose  sight  of  individual 
problems. 

Third,  placement  does  not  begin  the  guidance  soon 
enough.  The  placement  bureau  cannot  be  said  to  give 
effective  guidance  if  it  has  no  conferences  with  the  boy 
or  girl  before  he  or  she  comes  to  find  work.  It  should 
become  an  axiom  of  vocational  guidance,  that  effective 
direction  demands  long-continued  personal  acquaintance, 
advice,  and  occupational  preparation  before  the  time  for 
work  arrives,  and  supervision  and  counsel  during  at  least 
the  start  in  the  occupation.  Mere  placement  of  the 
child,  even  when  well  done,  deals  with  a  very  limited 
part  of  the  problem.^ 

Fourth,  placement  officers  are  tempted  to  take  the 
viewpoint  of  the  employers  and  this  tends  to  have  an 
unfavorable  reaction  on  the  school.  The  good- will  and 
cooperation  of  the  employer  is  desirable  and  important. 
But  his  needs  should  not  be  set  up  as  a  sole  measure  of 
school  efficiency.^    An  employment  agency  of  any  kind, 

^  Jesse  Davis  has  well  stated  the  complexity  of  the  problem  of  place- 
ment, showing  how  it  fails  if  it  does  not  come  as  a  step  in  the  larger 
welfare  of  the  child  (p.  156).  Davis  maintains  that  there  is  no  "best" 
Job  for  a  fourteen-year-old  child. 

2  In  a  recent  continuation  school  lesson  much  was  said  about  obeying 
orders,  being  respectful  to  superiors,  being  worth  what  you  are  paid, 
and  the  like.  Loyalty  and  obedience  were  enjoined,  and  the  lesson 
plan  proceeded  from  parents  to  employer  to  God.  One  might  have 
imagined  himself  in  a  Munich  school. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  III 

even  if  it  be  a  public  institution,  is  likely  to  harbor  the 
idea  that  the  school  is  or  ought  to  be  training  children 
exclusively  for  efficient  employment.  True,  this  is  a 
desirable  by-product,  but  even  if  all  children  were 
destined  for  permanent  positions  in  subordinate  employ- 
ment, it  does  not  follow  that  they  should  be  trained  with 
this  in  mind  as  the  goal. 

Fifth,  placement  under  present  circumstances,  com- 
peting as  it  must  with  private  employment  agencies, 
does  much  for  the  employer  without  being  able  to  demand 
much  .in  return.  A  placement  officer  recently  spent  a 
day's  time  in  filling  four  places.  The  work  was  well 
done,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  money  was  saved 
to  the  employers.  If  anything  is  given  by  these  em- 
ployers in  return  it  is  at  best  intangible,  voluntary,  and 
subject  to  reversal  at  their  pleasure.  Under  a  system 
of  genuine  employment  supervision,  the  employer  might 
be  required  to  chart  the  jobs,  to  maintain  healthful 
conditions  of  employment,  to  pay  adequate  wages,  and 
to  call  in  the  counselor  for  a  hearing  before  discharging 
the  boy. 

Sixth,  a  final  objection  to  a  placement  bureau  in  con- 
nection with  guidance  is  that  it  behaves  as  did  the  Arab's 
camel.  Vocational  guidance  should  be  the  master ; 
placement  should  serve  the  vocation.  But  the  act  of 
getting  the  boy  a  job  seems  such  an  important  achieve- 
ment (justly  so,  in  many  cases)  that  the  deeper  problems 
are  relegated  to  a  subordinate  place.  The  results  of 
placement  are  easily  appraised :    ''  This  office  last  year 


112  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

placed  145  persons  in  positions  with  aggregate  earnings 
of  nearly  $15,000."  Such  a  report  seems  to  be  a  tangible 
one  when  read  by  the  practical  man.  The  work  of  the 
vocational  counselor  cannot  be  put  on  paper  in  any  such 
shape.  Well  may  he  say,  to  school  committee  or  tax- 
payer, 

After  such  argument  what  can  I  plead  ? 
Or  what  pale  promise  make  ? 

Yet  we  know  that  the  need  for  adequate  vocational 
guidance  is  a  pressing  one  and  that  it  can  be  defended 
successfully  to  any  school  committeeman  who  will  con- 
sider the  whole  problem  broadly. 

Are  the  Placement  Bureaus  Efficient  in  Guidance  ?  — 
We  come  now  to  the  practical  question :  ]Q£jJi£..£lace- 
mentj^geii^ies  useeven  those  facilities  for  guidancejvhich 
thpy  hay^j  Miss  Odencrantz,  to  whose  article  we  have 
already  referred,  states  that  her  investigations  in  New 
York  City  give  her  evidence  which  "  may  be  taken  as  an 
indication  of  the  lack  of  realization  on  the  part  of  these 
workers  that  they  are  actually  undertaking  any  sort  of 
vocational  guidance.  It  likewise  indicates  limited  efforts 
in  relating  the  child  to  the  proper  kind  of  work.  It  is 
nearly  always  a  case  of  any  job  that  may  happen  to 
come  up  for  any  girl  who  happens  to  be  at  hand."  She 
states  further  that  even  the  organizations  which  are 
carrying  on  the  work  of  placement  more  or  less  definitely 
do  not  perform  one  of   the  fundamental   duties  and 

ip.  176. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  II3 

responsibilities  of  the  noncommercial  placement  agency, 
—  the  duty  of  making  preliminary  investigation  of  the 
industry  or  establishment,  before  sending  girls  into  it. 
Obviously,  then,  if  the  placement  bureau  is  to  hold 
any  advantage  over  the  commercial  employment  agency, 
its  organization,  equipment,  and  ideals  must  be  improved. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  possible  to  the  pubHcly 
managed  bureau  is  its  power  in  many  cases  to  put  children 
back  into  school.  Dr.  Edward  T.  Devine  puts  this 
point  as  follows : 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  sound  doctrine  in  the  idea  that 
the  only  place  to  put  people  under  eighteen  years  of  age  is 
in  school,  and  we  assume  a  serious  responsibility  if  we  in  any 
way  seem  to  give  prominence  to  the  idea  that  the  chief  task 
is  to  put  people  into  positions  rather  than  to  keep  them  out 
of  positions.^ 

The  experience  of  placement  bureaus  suggests  the 
need  for  scholarship  funds,  and  for  an  investigation  to 
determine  whether  or  not  the  bureaus  actually  find  for 
the  average  boys  and  girls  better  jobs  than  they  could 
find  for  themselves.  There  are  degrees  of  placement 
activity :  some  systems  allow  for  independent  action  on 
the  part  of  the  applicant,  while  others  exercise  un- 
warranted paternalism. 

The  Cleveland  office  has  a  staft"  of  fifteen  persons, 

and  aims  to  return  children  to  school  whenever  possible. 

No  boy  or  girl  is  placed  without  a  study  of  his  school 

record,  and  the  attempt  is  made  to  give  all  attention 

1  Nat.  Conference  on  V.  G.,  191 2,  p.  i. 

I 


114  THE   VOCATIONAL- GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

possible  to  the  vocational  aims  and  abilities  of  the 
applicant,  and  to  follow  his  progress  in  the  occupation. 
The  office  is  under  state  and  city  control. 

The  Cincinnati  Department  of  Child  Labor  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  school  board.  It  is  intimately 
related  to  the  schools  and  to  industry,  and  aims  to  pro- 
vide vocational  guidance  beginning  with  the  apphcation 
of  the  child  for  a  work  certificate. 

The  Boston  Placement  Bureau  ^  is  intimately  related 
to  the  work  of  the  Vocational- Guidance  Department, 
and  the  placement  feature  seems  here  to  have  something 
like  its  proper  subordination.  The  director  was  formerly 
in  charge  of  the  placement  bureau,  and  states  that  of  the 
three  functions  of  the  vocational-guidance  department  — 
guidance,  placement,  and  follow-up  —  placement  is  the 
least  important.  Assistant  Superintendent  Thompson, 
who  is  in  general  charge  of  the  work,  says  that  just  now 
follow-up  is  the  most  important,  for  through  this  the 
school  gets  guidance  —  it  sees  the  causes  of  its  own 
failures  and  successes,  and  learns  how  to  improve  its 
own  work. 

Employment  Supervision.  —  It  seems  fair  to  state  to 
employers  of  labor  that  theoretically  all  children  should 
be  in  school,  and  that  if  they  are  allowed  to  work,  on 
account  of  economic  needs,  their  labor  should  be  super- 
vised by  school  authorities.  The  age  for  compulsory 
attendance   has   been  progressively   raised,   and   there 

1  This  organization  has  now  been  taken  over  by  the  school  committee 
and  incorporated  into  the  Vocational-Guidance  Department. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  II 5 

seems  to  be  no  reason  for  believing  that  the  limit  has 
been  reached.  Minnesota  has  now  set  the  age  at  six- 
teen, and  Wisconsin  requires  continuation  schooling  for 
workers  up  to  the  age  of  seventeen. 

The  Need  for  Employment  Supervision.  —  From  the 
economic  and  social  standpoint,  the  worker  needs  the 
protection  which  a  supervisor  can  give.  The  factory  or 
mercantile  system  does  not  automatically  protect  its 
workers  —  the  interest  of  the  managers  is  directed  into 
other  lines.  Hence  the  demand  that  somebody  actually 
representing  the  public  be  appointed  to  follow  the  child's 
career  in  the  occupation.  It  is  true  that  the  more  pro- 
gressive firms  are  organizing  employment  managers' 
departments.  But  these  represent  the  firm  and  not 
the  children ;  when  adjustments  seem  difficult  to  make, 
the  settlement  finally  agreed  upon  in  every  case  should 
be  for  the  public  good. 

Most  of  all,  the  employment  supervisor  is  needed  as 
vocational  counselor  for  the  young  person  who  is  in  an 
occupation  for  which  he  is  not  adapted  —  who  feels 
that  he  is  a  misfit.  Again,  the  supervisor  can  counsel 
when  advice  is  wanted  on  any  of  the  problems  which 
arise :  when  to  ask  for  a  promotion,  which  of  two 
opportunities  to  choose,  what  processes  in  a  given  indus- 
try to  learn,  what  advanced  study  to  undertake,  what 
openings  there  are  ahead  and  how  to  prepare  for  them, 
when  to  seek  a  new  place.^ 

•  To  take  a  concrete  instance  from  the  files  of  the  Boston  Placement 
Bureau,  —  a  boy  quit  work  because  he  decided  that  it  offered  no  future 


Il6  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

The  Advantage  to  the  Employer.  —  The  enlightened 
employer  welcomes  such  supervision,  for  it  enables  him 
to  call  in  the  aid  of  an  understanding  friend  whenever 
advice  is  necessary.  It  has  been  the  experience  of  men 
and  women  engaged  in  such  supervision  that  employers 
desire  to  be  fair  to  the  boy  or  girl,  and  are  willing  even  to 
see  him  leave  for  a  better  place. ^  No  doubt  the  system 
of  competition  in  which  employers  find  themselves  offers 
temptation  to  unfairness.  But  the  evils  of  this  system 
itself  would  be  greatly  ameliorated  if  adequate  super- 
vision for  young  people  in  employment  were  widely 
enough  extended. 

Follow-up  Work.  —  The  first  step  toward  employment 
supervision  is  taken  when  school  people  investigate  the 
experiences  of  those  who  have  left  school,  as  did  the 
teachers  of  the  Mishawaka  high  school  when  they  looked 
up  the  graduates  for  ten  years  back  to  find  out  about 
their  work  and  wages.  Strictly  speaking,  this  form 
of  follow-up  does  not  involve  actual  supervision.  But 
the  expression  "  follow-up  "  is  often  used  to  mean  over- 
opportunity  ;  the  firm,  however,  stated  that  the  boy  had  a  good  oppor- 
tunity for  promotion.  Here  is  the  place  for  a  conference  to  see  what 
definite  proposition  can  be  made  to  the  boy.  Another  employer  asked 
the  bureau  for  a  messenger  boy.  The  placement  ofiicer  got  him  to  admit 
that  there  was  no  opportunity  for  promotion,  and  then  had  him  agree 
to  the  plan  to  take  a  boy  with  the  understanding  that  in  a  year's  time  he 
was  to  leave  for  a  better  position,  and  a  new  boy  be  supplied.  (See 
Breckenridge,  for  further  data.) 

^  Experience  has  so  far  been  limited ;  it  is  not  possible  to  infer  that 
this  kindly  attitude  would  be  universal.  If  supervision  is  needed  for 
educational  and  sociological  reasons,  it  must  come  regardless  of  the 
attitude  of  those  who  represent  narrower  interests. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  II7 

sight  as  well  as  investigation.  Investigation  should  pre- 
cede and  lead  to  supervision. 

Examples  of  Employment  Supervision.  —  Though  the 
simpler  forms  of  follow-up  are  now  very  common,^  it  is 
difficult  to  find  examples  of  employment  supervision  with 
authority  and  equipment  for  adequate  work. 

The  most  elaborate  employment  supervision  yet 
worked  out  is  that  which  is  a  part  of  the  cooperative  or 
part-time  plan.  The  system  is  explained  by  its  origi- 
nator, Dean  Schneider  of  the  College  of  Engineering, 
University  of  Cincinnati,  in  Chapters  IX  and  X  of  his 
book  Education  for  Industrial  Workers}  The  work  of 
the  "  coordinators  "  is  treated  on  pages  56  and  57. 
These  officers  are  employment  supervisors ;  their  duty 
is  to  see  that  the  shop  work  is  educative  and  the  school 
work  practical.  They  have  authority  to  protect  the 
worker :  "  No  girl  or  boy  may  be  exploited  by  over- 
zealous  foremen,  as  the  visits  of  coordinators  prevent 
this." 

Other  cities  which  have  cooperative  or  alternate-week 
plans  which  involve  the  supervision  of  the  start  in 
industry  are  Dayton,  Rochester,  Buffalo,  Boston, 
Fitchburg,  Chicago,  and  Solvay,  N.  Y. ;  and  many  other 
cities  have  made  beginnings. 

There  is,  of  course,  extensive  inspection  and  supervision 
of  industry  in  connection  with  the  eViforcement  of  the 

*  See  Boston  Circular;  Nat.  Conference,  1912,  pp.  24-31 ;  Nat.  Voc- 
Guidance  Assn.,  1913,  pp.  59-66;  1914,  pp.  52-55;  Eloomfield,  Read- 
ings, pp.  220-27,2, ;  pp.  485-503  ;    The  School  and  the  Start  in  Life,  p.  54. 

2  See  also  Com.  of  Educ,  1914,  p.  259, 


Il8  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

labor  and  health  laws  of  city,  state,  and  nation.  Though 
this  inspection  is  not  concerned  with  the  educational 
welfare  of  the  workers,  much  can  be  learned  from  its 
organization  and  method.  In  Chapter  VIII  we  shall 
outline  a  possible  plan  for  employment  supervision. 

Vocational  Guidance  through  the  Employment 
Manager.  —  Perhaps  the  most  hopeful  improvement 
within  industry  itself  is  the  recent  organization  of  em- 
ployment departments  in  many  establishments.  These 
departments  are  directed  by  employment  managers, 
who  attend  to  hiring  and  discharging  workers,  training 
the  new  employees,  supervising  the  conditions  of  labor, 
adjusting  work  to  workers,  carrying  on  social  work  among 
the  employees,  and  otherwise  aiding  inrnaking  the 
workers  efficient  and  satisfied.^  y"^^^ 

The  Kind  of  Work  Accomplished  by  the  Employment 
Manager.  —  In  the  factory  of  the  Dennison  Manufactur- 
ing Company  at  Framingham,  Mass.,  progress  has  been 
made  in  chartmg  or  "  blue-printmg  "  particular  jobs. 
The  employment  manager,  Mr.  Philip  J.  Reilly,  can 
tell  in  advance  just  what  each  of  the  one  hundred  and 
fifty  jobs  requires  and  offers.  For  example,  it  can  be 
specified  that  the  girl  who  is  to  work  at  covering  jewelry 
boxes  must  have  small,  fine,  but  strong  hands,  not  too 
ill-used  by  housework,  be  right-handed,  have  had  a 
better  education  than  the  average,  and  have  a  good 
sense  of  color  and  design.     Other  jobs  present  significant 

1  We  do  not  here  refer  to  Scientific  Management.  See  Chapter  VII 
for  a  treatment  of  that  subject. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  II9 

specifications  :  one  requires  standing ;  another  hammer- 
ing ;  a  third  the  use  of  glue,  with  its  disagreeable  odor ; 
another  knowledge  of  the  use  of  fractions ;  another  the 
use  of  inks  and  dyes.  A  special  effort  has  been  made  to 
transfer  persons  from  one  department  to  another,  to 
avoid  dissatisfaction,  discharge,  or  leaving.  During 
the  year  191 5  ninety- two  per  cent  of  the  transfers  were 
successful,  and  there  were  only  13  cases  of  voluntary 
leaving,  out  of  a  force  of  2300.  In  the  same  year  forty 
per  cent  of  the  transfers  were  to  better  positions.  This 
company  has  taken  stock  of  the  educational  opportunities 
of  the  community  open  to  workers,  for  the  purpose  of 
advising  its  employees. 

H.  P.  Hood  and  Sons  of  Boston  have  an  elaborate 
system  for  teaching  the  duties  of  milk-delivering  to 
new  employees.  The  plan  is  a  model  of  definite- 
ness  and  good  pedagogy  —  an  improvement  over  the 
old  method  of  "  trial  and  error."  The  operation  of 
the  plan  is  supervised  by  the  employment  man- 
ager. A  council  of  employees  hears  appeals  and 
complaints. 

William  Filene's  Sons  Company  of  Boston  have 
developed  many  democratic  features.  Teaching  new 
employees,  hiring,  transfer,  cases  of  discipline,  and  dis- 
charge are  under  the  supervision  of  the  management, 
but  an  appeal  may  be  taken  to  a  council  elected  by  such 
workers  of  the  store.  Further  details  in  regard  to  the 
plans  will  be  reserved  for  our  study  of  conditions  of 
employment  in  Chapter  VII. 


I20  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

The  reaction  on  the  men  acting  as  employment 
managers  is  one  of  the  most  significant  features  of  the 
work.  The  humanizing  influence  in  securing  satisfied 
employees  is  in  evidence.  One  of  these  employment 
managers  recently  spoke  of  the  responsibility  in  con- 
nection with  discharging  a  man  who  earned  no  more  in 
a  week  than  he,  the  manager,  earned  in  one  day.  An- 
other manager  stated  that  a  worker  earning  only  nine 
dollars  a  week  should  not  be  subject  to  discharge  by 
the  whim  of  any  one  person.  A  third  remarked  : 
"  Most  of  us  are  everlastingly  good  bosses  but  very 
poor  teachers."  It  is  not  claimed  by  these  men 
that  they  are  doing  their  work  for  humanitarian  rea- 
sons. Mr.  E.  A.  Filene  recently  remarked  that  there 
is  no  occasion  for  any  gratitude  on  the  part  of  em- 
ployees ;  they  are  not  getting  any  more  than  they 
are  gi\'ing. 

Employment  Managers'  Associations.  The  Boston 
Association.  —  Boston,  New  York,  Detroit,  Chicago, 
Philadelphia,  and  San  Francisco  now  have  organizations 
of  employment  managers,  meeting  regularly  for  con- 
ferences on  current  problems.  The  Boston  Employment 
Managers'  Association  was  the  first  organization  in  the 
field;  it  was  formed  in  December  191 1  by  the  Vocation 
Bureau.  The  membership  is  about  125.  It  holds 
monthly  meetings  with  programs  of  talks  and  discussions 
arranged  in  advance  by  a  program  committee.  Occa- 
sional meetings  are  held  at  the  places  of  business  of  the 
members,  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  methods  of 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  121 

handling  the  employment  problems  in  the  various 
stores  and  factories.  A  paid  secretary  has  recently  been 
employed,  and  a  systematic  program  of  work  has  been 
planned.  A  recent  circular  letter  to  the  members  out- 
hned  the  scope  and  character  of  the  problems,  and  work 
of  the  association.^ 

Other  Employment  Managers'  Organizations.  —  In 
New  York,  the  Society  for  the  Study  of  Employment 
Problems  plans  to  study  the  following  topics :  sources 
of  labor  supply;  selection  of  employees;  analyses  of 
jobs ;  conservation  of  employees,  including  methods  of 
training,  ways  and  means  of  promotion,  physical  condi- 
tions, records  of  employees,  and  means  of  remuneration ; 
reasons  of  and  methods  for  discharge. 

In  Boston  the  women  interested  in  these  subjects  have 
organized  the  Employment  Problem  Association,  and 
are  making  similar  investigations.  Some  of  their  meet- 
ings will  take  the  form  of  joint  meetings  with  the  Boston 
Employment  Managers'  Association. 

The  associations  in  the  other  cities  are  working  along 
similar  lines. 

Cooperation  of  the  Associations  with  Education.  — 
All  of  these  associations  admit  educational  people  to 
their  membership,  and  there  is  much  promise  of  genuine 
cooperative  effort  toward  a  solution  of  the  perplexing 
questions  of  emplo}Tnent.  It  was  the  work  of  the  Boston 
association  which  led  to  the  college  course  in  Dartmouth, 
which   we  have   noted   in   Chapter   II.     Recently   the 

*  See  Annals,  Personnel  Problems,  pp.  78-81,  114. 


122  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  has  organized 
courses  to  train  men  for  the  business  management  of 
engineering  establishments. 

The  first  national  conference  of  employment  managers 
was  held  on  January  19  and  20,  191 6,  at  Minneapolis,  in 
connection  with  the  ninth  convention  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education.  This 
meeting  was  addressed  by  persons  representing  colleges, 
factories,  commercial  organizations,  and  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor,  besides  the  associations 
of  employment  managers.^ 

Some  Special  Problems  and  Methods  of  the  Counselor. 
The  English  Plan.  —  The  English  plans  for  counseling 
proceed  on  the  assumption  that  no  central  office  in  a 
large  city  can  keep  in  personal  touch  with  the  individual 
child.  Hence  their  provision  for  large  volunteer  com- 
mittees. Each  child  is  put  in  touch  with  an  adult  who 
will  take  a  personal  interest  in  his  school,  home,  and 
working  affairs,  and  who  will  do  everything  possible 
to  foster  his  development  and  progress.  The  children 
are  assigned  to  these  "  helpers  "  about  three  months 
before  the  school-leaving  time,  and  the  helper  under- 
takes to  keep  in  touch  with  the  child  for  about  three 
years.  Only  a  few  children  are  under  the  direction  of 
each  helper.  Conferences  with  parents,  teachers,  and 
employers  are  frequent.     Helpers  keep  records  of  their 

*The  proceedings  of  this  meeting  and  of  later  conferences  at  Boston 
and  Philadelphia  were  published  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  123 

work,  and  a  central  office  holds  conferences  and  correlates 
the  work.^ 

Superintendent  Spaulding  advocates  the  adoption  of 
this  use  of  volunteer  help  in  America.  After  speaking 
of  the  part  to  be  played  in  guidance  by  pupils,  parents, 
and  teachers  he  says : 

In  my  judgment  they  must  all  take  a  part,  but  their  work 
to  be  successful  must  enlist  the  cooperation  of  high-minded 
and  public-spirited  men  in  the  busy  world  who  are  ready  to 
give  society  the  benefit  of  their  experience  and  aid  the  ris- 
ing generation  by  their  suggestions  and  advice.  Such  men 
can  help  enormously  in  this  great  task.^ 

Methods  of  Inducing  a  Young  Person  to  Change  his 
Aim.  —  How  shall  a  boy  or  girl  be  induced  to  reconsider 
a  determination  to  be  lawyer  or  doctor  or  engineer, 
when  it  appears  that  he  has  no  conception  of  the  battle 
ahead  of  him?  The  obvious  thing  to  do  is  bluntly  to 
say  to  him:  "  You  have  no  chance  to  be  a  lawyer." 
But  that  such  a  statement  is  the  wrong  one  to  make  has 
been  abundantly  proved,  for  the  strangest  things  have 
happened  to  make  success  possible.^  Direct  counsel 
of  a  negative  sort  is  inappropriate ;  a  different  method 
must  be  used.  That  employed  in  the  case  of  the  girls 
who  chose  stenography  is  suggestive  (p.  104).     Another 

1  Explanations  here  apply  particularly  to  Birmingham,  whose  plan 
is  typical  of  the  best.  See  Bloomfield,  The  School  aiid  the  Start  in  Life, 
pp.  47,  65-75,  81-83;  Youth,  School,  and  Vocation,  pp.  127-136;  or 
Readings,  pp.  679-703. 

*  Readings,  p.  17.     Sec  also  Martin. 

'  See  Breese. 


124  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

good  method  is  used  by  F.  M.  Giles  ^  —  the  method  of 
giving  information  which  will  show  the  difficulties  as 
well  as  the  advantages  of  the  occupation.  Many 
decisions  of  children  have  been  made  on  insufficient  data, 
and  therefore  more  data  are  required,  especially  about 
other  desirable  occupations.  When  the  teacher  as 
counselor  has  done  these  things  he  had  better  let  the 
pupil  do  the  rest.  Either  he  will  have  experiences  that 
will  teach  him  or  lead  him  to  change  his  mind,  or  he  will 
succeed  at  the  occupation  he  has  chosen,  regardless  of 
apparent  handicaps. 

Counseling  in  Grand  Rapids  High  School.  —  Six 
teachers  of  the  Grand  Rapids  High  School  have  three 
recitations  each,  daily,  and  give  the  remainder  of  their 
time  to  the  work  of  counseling.  Each  is  responsible  for 
the  educational,  moral,  and  vocational  guidance  of 
about  250  pupils.  They  keep  record  cards  for  these 
pupils,  and  act  as  a  cabinet  of  vice  principals  for  the 
advice  and  assistance  of  the  principal.^ 

Policies  of  Counseling  in  Boston.  —  The  Vocational- 
Guidance  Department  of  the  Boston  schools  holds  that 
no  vocational  counselor  should  take  the  responsibility 
for  telHng  a  boy  or  girl  what  he  can  or  cannot  do.  The 
director  believes  that  just  as  a  guidepost  tells  which 
turns  must  be  made  to  get  to  certain  places,  but  leaves 
the  decision  to  be  made  by  the  traveler,  so  the  vocational 
guide  should   tell   what  must  be  done   to   reach  any 

1  See  Bibliography. 

'  Leavitt,  Examples,  etc.,  p.  252. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  I  25 

occupation  (and  what  the  occupation  offers),  and  must 
leave  the  final  choice  to  the  boy  or  girl. 

The  Civic  Service  House,  in  which  the  modern  voca- 
tional-guidance movement  originated,  has  recently  out- 
hned  a  plan  to  be  used  in  the  conferences  held  with  its 
members : 

Educational  and  Vocational  Guidance 

CIVIC   SERVICE  house 

1.  Preliminary  interviews  are  held,  to  discover  experi- 
ences, successes,  abilities,  and  aims.  Parents  and  house 
workers  are  sometimes  present.  General  advice  is  given, 
perhaps  in  regard  to  reading  on  occupations,  advanced  study, 
or  visits  to  schools  or  other  places. 

2.  Investigations  are  made  by  the  house  workers,  to  deter- 
mine the  desires  and  resources  of  the  parents. 

3.  A  conference  committee,  made  up  of  the  house  workers 
and  the  officers  of  the  Vocational  Bureau,  holds  monthly  meet- 
ings at  the  Vocation  Bureau  for  the  consideration  of  cases. 

4.  The  recommendations  of  the  committee  are  carried 
out,  so  far  as  possible.  The  resources  of  the  house  and  of 
other  organizations  are  used  in  whatever  way  seems  neces- 
sary to  extend  the  education  and  the  opportunity  of  the  per- 
sons who  are  counseled. 

At  What  Age  should  the  Vocation  be  Chosen  ?  — 
Counselors  are  sometimes  asked  this  question  by  anxious 
parents  or  "  practical  "  friends  of  the  child.  It  is  im- 
possible to  answer ;  generalization  here  is  quite  gratuitous. 
Yet  the  dangers  connected  with  too  early  or  too  late 
choices  are  serious. 


126  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUroANCE   MOVEMENT 

The  enrichment  of  the  school  program  will  undoubtedly 
furnish  an  educational  guidance  which  will  disclose  aims 
and  abilities  much  sooner  than  would  the  narrow  pro- 
gram. Yet  the  child  has  only  a  child's  experiences, 
and  there  are  certain  occupations  whose  requirements 
and  opportunities  can  hardly  be  appreciated  by  a  person 
under  twenty-one ;  for  example,  those  of  the  lawyer, 
the  statesman,  the  social  worker,  the  college  teacher. 

The  problem  can  be  solved  only  by  opening  wide  the 
opportunity  for  education  and  range  of  choice:  by  in- 
creasing the  vocational  infancy  of  all  those  young  persons 
who  are  likely  to  profit  by  the  delay  of  choice.  The  test 
to  be  applied  should  be  progress  in  profitable  lines  of 
applied  study.  The  prevocational  age  for  certain  occupa- 
tions may  be  extended  into  the  twenties.  Note  that  the 
prevocational  idea  involves  work.  There  is  only  gain 
to  the  individual  and  to  society  from  profitable,  super- 
vised work,  if  such  work  is  educational  in  its  functioning 
and  effect.  Thus,  the  future  statesman  may  run  errands, 
the  lawyer  wire  a  house,  the  preacher  lay  a  cement  side- 
walk, and  the  college  president  work  as  clerk  in  a  store, 
all  with  educational  profit  to  the  individual  and  to 
society. 

Do  early  choices  persist?  Peixotto  (p.  82)  thinks 
that  vocational  clues  of  a  reliable  sort  begin  to  manifest 
themselves  between  the  ages  of  eleven  and  fourteen  years. 
Thorndike  has  computed  for  100  indi\aduals  the  re- 
semblance between  relative  interests  and  relative 
capacities  as  0.9,  and  between  interest  in  the  last  three 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  1 27 

years  of  the  elementary  school  and  capacity  in  the  college 
period  as  0.6.  He  concludes,  "  These  facts  unanimously 
witness  to  the  importance  of  early  interests."  ^ 

It  is  always  unsafe  to  apply  conclusions  based  on 
averages  —  or  on  60  or  90  per  cent  —  to  the  individual 
case.  We  can  never  know  which  is  the  exception.  Too 
many  "  average  "  boys  and  girls  have  broken  the  rules 
of  averages.  A  case  from  a  current  magazine  illustrates 
the  way  late  choices  are  made.  The  Polish  novelist 
Stanislaw  Przybyszewski  went  to  Berlin  in  1889  at  the 
age  of  twenty-one  to  study  architecture.  He  soon 
changed  to  the  study  of  physiological  psychology,  but 
in  1 89 1  became  editor  of  the  Berlin  Arheiter-Zeitimg  and 
leader  of  strikes  in  Silesia.  In  Berlin  he  began  to  write 
on  philosophical  subjects,  at  the  age  of  thirty  became 
editor  of  a  literary  magazine  in  Cracow,  and  thence 
went  to  Warsaw  and  devoted  himself  to  drama.  He  is 
now  engaged  in  writing  novels  and  in  lecturing.^ 

As  we  remarked  in  another  place,  a  person's  aim  is 
likely  to  change  as  he  proceeds  in  study  and  work,  and 
his  period  of  vocational  exploration  may  be  extended  so 
long  as  he  is  occupying  the  time  in  ways  profitable  to 
himself  and  society.  A  forced  choice  might  lead  to  un- 
happiness  and  disaster. 

Making  Alternative  Choices  of  Careers.  —  Apparently 
one  precaution  worth  taking,  in  order  to  prevent  early 
mis-choices,  is  to  suggest  to  the  youth   that  he  select 

'  1  Readings,  pp.  386-395 ;  Kitson,  Interest,  etc. 
^  See  Current  Opinion,  Dec.  19 15,  p.  424- 


128  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

from  three  to  five  occupations  for  consideration  and 
study.  He  may  then  keep  in  mind  throughout  his  life 
one  or  two  occupations  other  than  the  one  he  decides 
upon,  so  that  if  a  change  ever  seems  desirable,  it  may 
be  made  without  too  much  diffculty. 

The  Collection,  Classification,  and  Use  of  Occupational 
Information.  —  In  order  to  do  effective  work,  the  teacher 
and  the  counselor  must  know  about  the  world  of  occupa- 
tions into  which  the  children  are  to  enter.  He  must 
collect,  classify,  and  use  significant  vocational  facts. 

Collecting  Information.  —  In  the  collection  of  occupa- 
tional information  much  may  be  learned  from  the 
methods  employed  in  recent  surveys  of  school  systems, 
and  of  surveys  for  vocational  education.  The  Port- 
land, Oregon,  Survey  devotes  two  chapters  (VI  and  VII) 
to  the  vocational  needs  of  the  city,  and  the  Cleveland 
survey  devotes  nine  of  the  twenty-five "  booklets  to  the 
occupations  of  that  city  in  relation  to  schooling.  The 
Richmond,  Minneapolis,  and  Indiana  Vocational-Educa- 
tion Surveys  come  nearer  still  to  our  purpose :  all  are  full 
of  information  very  much  needed  by  the  counselor  in 
his  work. 

Much  as  these  surveys  are  to  be  commended,  they  have 
a  sUghtly  different  aim  from  that  necessarily  taken  by 
the  counselor.  The  survey  for  vocational  education 
aims  to  find  out  (i)  what  are  the  occupations  of  the  com- 
munity, with  the  requirements  of  each ;  (2)  what  the 
vocational-education  opportunities  are ;  and  (3)  what 
educational  advantages  should  be  provided  to  meet  the 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  1 29 

requirements.  The  survey  is  not  necessarily  concerned 
with  asking  whether  or  not  the  occupations  should  be 
improved,  whether  or  not  there  should  be  supervision  of 
employment,  what  provision  for  placement  there  should 
be,  or  what  system  for  guidance  should  be  inaugurated.^ 
The  vocational-guidance  survey  wishes  to  know  all  that 
a  vocational-education  survey  can  tell,  and  is  interested 
besides  in  such  problems  as  those  noted  above. 

Comprehensive  surveys  for  the  express  purposes  of 
vocational  guidance  are  rare,  though  the  surveys  made 
by  the  Vocation  Bureau  while  training  the  Boston 
school  counselors  were  for  explicit  use  in  vocational 
guidance.  We  have  spoken  of  a  follow-up  investigation 
in  which  a  high  school  finds  out  what  its  graduates  are 
doing.  Such  a  study  involves  visiting  stores,  factories, 
offices,  shops,  and  other  establishments,  asking  questions 
about  the  occupations,  and  then  using  the  information  so 
obtained  in  improving  the  school  and  guiding  pupils. 
Such  an  investigation  is  a  rudimentary  vocational-guid- 
ance survey,  and  has  no  doubt  been  attempted  by  many 
schools.  A  city  or  school  system  survey  for  the  purpose 
of  vocational  guidance  would  be  of  national  help  and 
importance. 

'  On  page  8  of  the  Minneapolis  Survey  is  given  a  statement  of  the 
aims  of  the  survey.  It  should  be  noted  that  this  particular  study  (as 
well  as  the  Richmond  Survey  in  some  particulars)  goes  further  than  its 
aims  require :  it  is  critical  in  its  examination  of  the  occupations,  and 
makes  frequent  recommendations  of  great  significance  to  vocational 
guidance.  Chapter  XXIV  makes  some  suggestions  for  a  program  of 
vocational  guidance. 


130  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

What  Information  shall  be  Collected  ?  —  The  first 
requisite  is  to  know  what  to  ask.  Dr.  Richards,  Director 
of  Cooper  Union,  gave  an  adequate  answer  to  this 
problem  at  the  Second  National  Conference  on  Voca- 
tional Guidance.^  He  classifies  the  necessary  questions 
under  the  following  heads :  the  economic  data,  the  effect 
of  the  occupation  on  body  and  character,  the  data  on 
opportunity  for  beginners,  and  the  relation  of  the 
occupation  to  school  training.  Following  is  a  brief 
summary  of  the  questions  he  proposes : 

What  we  Need  to  Know  about  Occupations 

I.  Economic  data : 

1.  What  is  the  size  and  importance  of  the  industry,  nationally 
and  locally  ? 

2.  Is  it  a  growing  or  a  diminishing  field? 

3.  Is  the  occupation  overcrowded? 

4.  Is  it  stable,  or  likely  to  change  on  account  of  invention 
or  the  whim  of  the  public  ? 

5.  What  are  the  hours  of  labor,  and  the  rules  about  overtime  ? 

6.  Is  the  pay  by  time-work  or  piece-work  ? 

7.  How  is  the  work  in  the  occupation  subdivided?  What 
proportion  of  the  work  is  desirable  ? 

8.  What  physical  and  mental  qualities  are  necessary  for 
success  and  efficiency? 

II.  Physical  and  hygienic  conditions : 

1.  Is  the  work  carried  on  indoors  or  outdoors? 

2.  Does  the  worker  sit  or  stand  for  long  periods,  or  move 
about  ? 

3.  Is  there  ample  room  and  good  ventUation? 

^  Report  of  Sec.  Nat.  Conf.  on  Voc.  Guidance,  pp.  35-44 ;  also  Read- 
ings, pp.  504-514. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  131 

4.  Is  the  worker  exposed  to  heat  or  cold  or  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  ? 

5.  Is  time  allowed  for  dinner,  and  is  there  opportunity  for 
warm  meals? 

6.  Does  the  work  involve  strain  to  eyes  or  nerves? 

7.  Are  there  dangers  from  machinery? 

8.  Are  there  dangers  from  dust  ? 

9.  Are  there  any  special  unhealthy  conditions  which  might 
lead  to  occupational  diseases  ? 

III.  Influence  of  the  occupation  on  the  character  and 
growth  of  the  workers : 

1.  Is  the  occupation  stimulating,  or  deadening? 

2.  Are  the  influences  surrounding  the  work  morally  deterio- 
rating ? 

IV.  Opportunities  for  beginners : 

1.  What  are  the  ways  by  which  the  occupation  is  entered? 

2.  Do  employers  want  trained  workers?    Are  they   willing 
to  take  untrained  workers  ? 

3.  What  is  the  age  for  entering  the  occupation? 

4.  What  are  the  beginning  wages,  and  the  normal  rate  of  gain  ? 

5.  What  per  cent  of  the  workers  leave  in  the  first  year? 

6.  What  per  cent  remain  in  low-paid  work  at  the  end  of  six 
years  ? 

7.  What  per  cent  are  advanced  to  more  skilled  and  responsible 
work  at  higher  wages? 

8.  Has  a  beginner  opportunity  to  learn  more  than  one  process  ? 

9.  Are  there  opportunities  for  transfer  from  one  department 
to  another,  and  for  showing  ability  to  transfer  to  better  work? 

10.  How  are  skilled  or  high-grade  workers  recruited? 

11.  Does  the  worker  receive  any  instruction  from  the  employer? 

12.  Is  there  an  apprentice  system?    What  percentage  of  young 
workers  arc  apprenticed? 

13.  What  are  the  trade-union  restrictions  as  to  apprenticeship 
or  helf>ers  ? 


132  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

V.  The  relation  of  the  occupation  to  school  training : 

1.  Is  school  training  beyond  the  legal  requirement  an  ad- 
vantage in  the  occupation  ?    Beyond  the  grammar  school  ? 

2.  Is  high  school  training  an  advantage?  Vocational  school 
training  ? 

3.  Which  are  of  greatest  help:  General  knowledge?  Indus- 
trial and  economic  intelligence  ?  Specialized  technical  knowledge  ? 
Manipulative  skill  ? 

4.  How  should  the  instruction  be  obtained :  Before  entrance 
to  occupation,  or  after?  In  evening  schools?  Part-time  school? 
Are  there  facilities  for  such  schooling?  Are  employers  willing 
to  allow  part-time  schooling,  without  reduction  in  wages? 

Dr.  Richards'  paper  is  well  supplied  with  examples  to 
illustrate  the  points  covered  in  this  outline.  He  remarks 
that  these  data  are  not  needed  alone  for  vocational 
guidance,  but  also  for  the  general  improvement  of  social 
and  economic  conditions.  A  significant  statement  is 
his  observation  that  the  work  of  vocational  guidance 
need  not  wait  until  these  facts  are  fully  collected. 

The  questions  in  the  above  outline  cover  the  ground 
in  comprehensive  fashion.  The  variations  in  the  reqtiire- 
ments,  as  given  by  various  writers,  and  as  applied  in 
actual  surveys,  may  be  noted  by  referring  to  the  literature 
of  the  subject.^ 

^  Literature  on  surveys  or  investigations  for  vocational  guidance 
(see  Bibliog.) :  Nat.  Conference,  191 2,  Stevens,  Richards,  Fitch,  Wool- 
man,  Perkins.  Nat.  V.  G.  Assn.,  1913,  Ayres,  Giles,  Richards,  Lea vitt ; 
1914,  Wheatley.  In  Bloomfield's  Readings,  Ayres,  Lewis,  Dearie,  New 
York,  Schneider,  Talbert,  Montgomery,  Breckenridge  and  Abbott, 
Richards,  Parts  III  and  IV.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  (Richmond). 
Nat.  Soc,  for  Prom,  of  Ind.  Educ.  (MinneapoHs).  Cleveland  Survey, 
BrjTier,  Fleming,  Lutz,  O'Leary,  Stevens,  Shaw.  Bloomfield,  Youth, 
etc.,  Chap.  VIII,  pp.  65-86;  School  and  Start,  pp.  70-72.     Davis,  Voca- 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  1 33 

Selecting  Significant  Facts.  —  The  complexity  of  the 
occupational  world  makes  it  absolutely  necessary  to 
select  from  the  mass  of  facts  those  which  have  special 
bearing  on  the  work  of  the  school  and  especially  on 
vocational  guidance.  The  field  schedules  for  the  voca- 
tional-education surveys  are  very  complex ;  a  glance  at 
the  large  tables  in  the  Richmond  Survey  will  show  how 
necessary  is  the  selection  and  emphasis  of  significant 
facts,  if  the  counselor  is  not  to  be  lost  in  a  maze  of 
irrelevant  details.  The  field  investigator  himself  may 
aid  the  selection  by  underlining  or  checking  items  of 
special  significance  as  he  gathers  data,  and  by  making 
some  general  comments  about  the  occupation  or  estab- 
lishment. Field  books  should  provide  space  for  these 
comments. 

After  the  facts  and  comments  are  gathered,  they  should 
be  studied  and  put  in  shape  for  use.  Vocational  spe- 
cialists may  want  to  have  access  to  all  the  facts,  while 
teachers,  parents,  and  children  want  brief  statements 
and  significant  conclusions.  The  returns  from  the 
surveys  must  therefore  be  reduced  to  a  form  appropriate 
for  general  use.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  aim  in  the 
reports  of  the  Cleveland  Survey;  not  only  are  there 
eight  booklets  each  devoted  to  one  group  of  occupations, 
but  there  is  also  one  book  devoted  to  the  findings  for 
all.     The  Rochester  school  department  has  utilized  the 

tional,  etc.,  Chap.  VII,  p.  139.  Parsons,  Part  II.  Eaton  and  Stevens, 
Gowin  and  Wheatley.  Hill.  Myers's  Bibliography.  Pamphlets  of 
Chicago,  Boston,  Portland,  Ore.,  New  York,  Rochester,  London,  Munich, 
and  other  cities. 


134  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUroANCE   MOVEMENT 

Chamber  of  Commerce  survey  from  which  to  summarize 
for  vocational  guidance  the  main  facts  about  several 
occupations,  in  very  brief  form.  Bulletin  No.  3, 
Clothing  Industry  for  Girls,  has  five  pages  of  text,  and 
treats  of  the  following  subjects :  size  of  the  industry, 
divisions  of  the  trade,  the  season,  the  kind  of  girl  desired, 
the  pay,  hours,  labor  laws,  location  of  shops,  and  where 
to  learn  operating  and  buttonhole  making.^ 

Frequently  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  a  city  may 
be  induced  to  assist  in  the  publication  of  the  booklets, 
if  not  in  the  expense  of  collecting  the  information.  Thus 
the  Gesellschaft  zur  Beforderung  der  Kiinste  und  niitz- 
lichen  Gewerbe  of  Hamburg  stands  sponsor  for  booklets 
so  economically  gotten  up,  in  the  printing  and  binding, 
that  they  can  be  revised  and  kept  up  to  date  with  a 
minimum  of  expense. 

Too  often  in  the  past  the  sole  printed  matter  in  con- 
nection with  painstaking  surveys  has  been  the  large 
volume  called  the  report  —  a  forbidding  document  except 
to  a  few  experts.  It  is  now  recognized,  apparently, 
that  new  methods  of  disseminating  the  findings  are 
needed,  and  brief,  popular  summaries  should  do  much 
toward  making  vocational  guidance  practicable  and 
systematic. 

Who  should  Make  the  Surveys  ?  —  We  have  indicated 
already  that  the  vocational-guidance  department  of  the 
school  board  or  committee  should  follow  the  children 

*  See  also  the  Chicago  bulletins  reprinted  in  Bloomfield's  Readings, 
pp.  542-556. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  135 

into  the  occupations,  and  should  supervise  their  employ- 
ment. In  connection  with  these  processes  they  should 
make  investigations  which  can  furnish  information  for 
counseling  children  still  in  school.  This  information 
should  be  systematically  gathered,  tabulated,  verified, 
and  kept  up  to  date,  and  should  serve  the  purposes  of  a 
vocational-guidance  survey.^ 

The  occupational  information  should  be  kept  ready  for 
reference  in  a  central  office,  and  may  there  be  accessible 
to  state  and  federal  officers.  The  State  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  should  sift  and  tabulate  the  information 
collected  by  local  authorities,  pubHsh  exhaustive  reports, 
and  issue  brief  bulletins  of  a  popular  nature  useful  to 
parents,  teachers,  employers,  workers,  and  school  classes. 
The  Federal  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  in  turn,  should 
collect,  compare,  correlate,  tabulate,  and  disseminate  the 
material  from  all  the  states,  and  should  issue  popular 
bulletins  for  the  use  of  all  classes  of  people. 

These  reports,  of  course,  should  by  no  means  be  limited 
to  mere  facts  or  statistics ;  in  spite  of  the  name  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics,  used  in  the  case  of  state  and  federal 
boards,  a  glance  at  their  reports  will  show  a  very  wide 
range  of  powers.  These  bureaus  are  well  equipped  to 
aid  the  movement  for  vocational  guidance. 

1  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  should  be  better  than  a  formal  sun.-ey,  for  the 
latter  is  apt  to  be  thought  of  as  completed,  while  the  information  should 
be  always  growing  and  being  revised.  The  formal,  occasional  survey 
is  useful  when  information  is  lacking  on  account  of  past  neglect,  but 
it  is  not  an  ideal  plan  for  keeping  information  about  occupations  up  to 
date. 


136  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Cooperation  of  the  most  far-reaching  nature  should  be 
practiced  in  collecting  the  occupational  information. 
The  following  organizations,  among  others,  should 
contribute :  employers'  associations,  labor  unions,  cham- 
bers of  commerce,  manufacturers'  associations,  employ- 
ment managers'  associations,  teachers'  organizations, 
state  commissioners  and  superintendents  of  education, 
health  boards,  employment  bureaus,  professional  and 
civic  clubs,  settlements,  private  schools,  newspapers, 
civil  service  commissions.  Of  special  aid  will  be  the 
Bureau  of  the  Census,  the  Bureau  of  Education,  and  the 
Departments  of  Commerce,  Agriculture,  and  Labor. 

Until  such  time  as  facilities  for  collecting  the  appro- 
priate information  are  adequately  provided,  the  teacher, 
principal,  or  superintendent  can  do  what  the  Boston  Vo- 
cation Bureau  has  done :  investigate  typical,  important 
occupations,  write  concise  explanations  of  them,  submit 
the  copy  to  employers,  workers,  and  economists  for 
correction  and  suggestion,  and  publish  the  resulting 
material  in  the  form  of  pamphlets  or  booklets.^ 

A  glance  at  the  current  Manual  of  Examinations  of  the 
United  States  Civil  Service  Commission  ^  shows  what 
might  be  accomplished  by  a  more  extensive  use  of 
agencies  already  in  operation.  For  example,  the  follow- 
ing is  an  extract  from  the  stated  requirement  for  Press 
Feeder  in  the  Government  Printing  Service :  ^ 

'  See  the  interesting  plan  by  which  high  school  boys  gather  informa- 
tion for  themselves :  Westgate. 

^  Spring,  1916,  pp.  108  and  121  ff.  ^  Sec.  227. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  137 

No  application  is  accepted  which  does  not  show  that  the 
applicant  has  had  either  (i)  at  least  three  months'  experi- 
ence and  has  fed,  at  the  rate  of  1200  sheets  per  hour,  sheets 
not  less  than  24  by  38  inches  in  size  on  a  cylinder  press  or 
sheets  not  less  than  14  by  17  inches  in  size  on  a  platen  press, 
or  (2)  at  least  three  months'  experience  in  packing  and  band- 
ing cards  of  approximately  3I  by  5$  inches,  at  the  rate  of  at 
least  300  packets  per  hour. 

Any  boy  studying  the  work  of  the  press  feeder  may 
measure  his  potential  abilities  by  these  standards.  In 
Section  249  of  the  same  bulletin  the  specifications  for 
stenographer  and  typewriter  are  outlined,  sample  tests 
are  published,  and  definite  standards  set.  No  source 
of  information  gives  more  promise  than  that  represented 
by  federal  and  state  departments  of  government. 

Classification  of  the  Material  for  Use  in  Counseling.  — 
The  classification  of  occupations  must  be  simple  and 
brief,  if  it  is  to  be  used  with  young  children  to  aid  them 
in  getting  acquainted  with  the  world's  work.  Two  such 
classifications,  one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  are  given 
by  Davis  on  pages  67  and  69  of  Vocational  and  Moral 
Guidance.  The  divisions  for  boys  are:  agriculture; 
business ;  professions ;  industry ;  unclassified.  For 
girls :  household  arts ;  agriculture  ;  business ;  industrial 
arts ;  professions ;  special  occupations  for  women. 
Bonser  accepts  the  fivefold  division :  professional, 
commercial,  agricultural,  industrial,  and  household.^ 
Woods  has  eight  classes  for   boys:    professional,  mer- 

1  Readings,  p.  no. 


138  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

cantile,  petty  mercantile,  clerical,  artisan,  laboring, 
agriculture,  miscellaneous.^  The  census  classification 
has  nine  divisions,  and  if  home  making  be  added,  ten: 
agriculture,  forestry,  and  animal  husbandry ;  extraction 
of  minerals ;  manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries ; 
transportation ;  trade ;  public  service ;  professional 
service ;  domestic  and  personal  service ;  clerical  occupa- 
tions. 

All  of  these  classifications  are  open  to  the  objection 
that  they  are  logical  rather  than  pragmatic ;  they  do  not 
aid  the  child  by  relating  the  occupations  to  his  own  life, 
abilities,  and  ideals.  The  counselor  may  therefore  enlist 
the  aid  of  the  young  people,  and  they  may  build  up 
classifications  of  their  own,  based  on  special  points  under 
consideration.  For  example,  the  members  of  an  oral 
English  class  debated  in  an  informal  way  about  the  useful- 
ness to  society  of  certain  special  occupations,  after  which 
they  took  a  vote  of  first,  second,  and  third  choices. 
Another  classification  interesting  to  young  people  is 
based  on  these  questions :  What  occupations  are  so 
important  that  organized  society  manages  them  ?  Which 
ones  are  so  important  that  voluntary  organizations 
manage  them  without  making  any  profit?  Which  are 
so  necessary  that  society  officially  recognizes  and  regu- 
lates them?  Which  are  privately  managed,  but  held  as 
necessary?  Which  have  to  do  with  mere  luxuries? 
Which  are  prohibited  ? 

Other  bases  of  profitable  classification  are  suggested 

1  Readings,  p.  26. 


VOCATIONAL  COUNSELING  1 39 

by  these  questions  about  a  given  occupation  which  a 
boy  or  girl  might  be  studying :  Is  it  a  purely  automatic 
process?  Does  it  take  semi-attention?  Does  it  take 
occasional  thinking?  Does  it  require  continued  think- 
ing? Does  it  take  strength,  size,  use  of  eyes  or  ears? 
Still  another  basis  for  study  is  indicated  by  such  ques- 
tions as :  What  occupations  are  open  to  a  boy  equipped 
with  a  good  knowledge  of  chemistry?  Mechanical 
drawing  ?  ^ 

The  work  in  agriculture  fostered  by  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Education  is  planned  so  that  the  exercises 
are  graded  with  the  easiest  first  and  the  most  difficult 
last.  Thus  the  pupils  have  a  useful  classification  within 
the  field  of  agriculture.^ 

Certain  classifications  once  useful  but  now  of  no  practi- 
cal value  should  be  avoided,  for  example  that  based  on 
the  materials  used  in  the  occupations  :  the  woodworking 
trades,  the  iron  trades,  etc.  Materials  are  no  longer  of 
sufficient  significance :  certain  processes  in  wood,  metal, 
and  leather  may  all  involve  the  manipulation  of  machines 
requiring  almost  identical  dexterity. 

No  doubt  the  life-career  class  may  consider  the  common 
classifications  of  occupations.  The  pupils  should  be 
shown,  however,  that  there  are  many  practical  problems 
not  at  all  settled  by  such  classifications,  and  that  they 
can  hardly  choose  a  vocation  without  a  much  more 

^  Another  suggestive  classification  of  the  grades  of  workers  in  an  in- 
dustry was  published  recently  in  School  and  Society  (Garnett).  See 
also  Richards'  questions,  above. 

*  Stimson. 


I40  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

significant  analysis  of  its  characteristics  than  any  these 
classifications  furnish. 

The  Use  of  Vocational  Material  in  Counseling.  — 
Bloomfield,  in  speaking  of  the  work  of  the  counselor, 
says: 

Prolonged,  earnest  effort  on  the  part  of  the  counselor 
is  imperative,  and  a  corresponding  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
applicant,  or  the  service  fails  of  results.^ 

One  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  counselor  is  to  assist  the 
pupil  in  a  systematic  study  of  the  occupations  which  he  is 
considering.  Attractive  reading  matter  must  be  as- 
signed, both  general  and  particular  in  scope  and  nature. 
The  use  of  this  material  must  not  be  hmited  to  local 
opportunities,  for  Ayres'  study  of  thirteen-year-old  boys 
in  seventy-eight  cities  shows  that  only  one  half  of  them 
were  living  in  the  city  of  their  birth,  and  of  the  fathers  but 
one  in  six.^  As  the  pupil  proceeds  in  the  study  of  his 
occupation,  he  must  have  the  benefit  of  frequent  con- 
ferences with  the  counselor.  He  should  be  encouraged 
to  discuss  his  problems  with  parents  and  friends,  to  talk 
over  with  other  pupils  the  reading  he  does,  and  to 
make  it  the  basis  for  some  of  the  work  in  the  composi- 
tion and  oral  English  classes.  Literature  sent  to  the 
parents,  with  an  invitation  to  a  conference,  will  aid 
in  the  work  materially. 

The  use  of  vocational  material  in  life-career  classes  has 
been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  educational  guidance. 

^  Youth,  etc.,  p.  57.  ^  Readings,  p.  154. 


VOCATIONAL   COUNSELING  I4I 

The  Equipment  of  the  Counselor.  —  The  "  blue- 
printing "  of  the  task  of  the  vocational  counselor  has 
been  adequately  and  acceptably  done  by  Professor 
Bonser  in  the  article  to  which  we  have  already  referred.^ 
Four  specifications  are  named :  information,  experierice, 
appropriate  personality,  and  capacity  for  constructive 
research.  Of  special  significance  for  our  purpose  here 
is  a  study  of  the  equipment  of  the  counselor  as  expressed 
in  the  judgment  of  men  who  have  had  years  of  experience 
in  the  work  —  such  men  as  Parsons,  Bloomfield,  and 
Davis;  to  the  writings  of  these  men  the  reader  is 
referred.^ 

An  attempt  to  add  to  these  statements  about  the  equip- 
ment of  the  counselor,  or  to  formulate  a  new  set  of 
specifications  based  on  the  present  study,  would  involve 
a  summary  of  the  topics  of  our  entire  book.  We  shall 
therefore  defer  further  consideration  of  the  subject 
until  we  have  completed  our  study  of  the  conditions  in  the 
occupations  and  have  come  to  the  discussion  of  normal 
school  and  college  courses  to  prepare  for  counseling. 

The  Teacher  as  Counselor.  —  It  is  hoped  that  Chapter 
III  has  made  it  clear  that  every  teacher  of  the  school  has 
opportunities  to  give  vocational  guidance.  The  present 
chapter  aims  to  show  that  individual  conferences  are 
needed  by  the  children  —  conferences  with  persons  spe- 
cially equipped  to  give  more  nearly  adequate  guidance. 

^  Readings,  pp.  109-116. 

2  Choosing  a  Vocation,  pp.  94-95 ;  Youth,  School,  and  Vocation,  pp. 
SS''S7>  60-65,  87-94;   Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance,  pp.  137-152. 


142  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

What  should  be  the  relation  between  the  teacher  and  the 
trained  counselor?  Obviously  the  supervision  of  the 
work  should  be  under  the  direction  of  a  man  or  woman 
trained  for  that  work;  obviously,  also,  the  classroom 
teacher  should  do  all  he  can  in  guiding  the  pupils,  because 
he  is  nearest  to  them.  It  seems  safe  to  say,  then,  that 
the  trained  counselor's  function  is  to  direct  the  work, 
to  furnish  teachers  with  whatever  helps  he  can,  to  meet 
with  and  advise  pupils  whose  problems  need  more  atten- 
tion than  their  teachers  can  give,  to  conduct  Ufe-career 
classes,  and  to  attend  to  the  activities  which  have  to  do 
with  employment  supervision. 

No  matter  how  efl&cient  and  enthusiastic  the  trained 
counselor  may  be,  however,  the  success  of  his  work  will 
very  largely  depend  on  the  attitude  of  the  teachers  of  the 
school  system  toward  the  work.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  there- 
fore, that  the  increased  professional  training  of  teachers 
will  help  to  equip  them  for  an  interest  in  guidance  and 
an  -abiUty  in  counseling.  In  the  last  analysis,  perhaps 
most  of  the  actual  counseling  should  be  given  by  the 
child's  teacher,  and  the  director  should  devote  the  greater 
part  of  his  time  to  the  effort  to  train  special  teachers  in 
each  school  for  the  work,  and  to  aid  all  the  teachers  in 
developing  the  viewpoint  of  vocational  guidance  in  the 
studies  of  the  school  program. 


CHAPTER  V 

PsEUDo- Guidance 

In  our  study  of  pseudo-guidance  we  may  concede 
that  most  intentions  are  good,  and  we  shall  not  go  so 
far  as  to  label  all  the  methods  discussed  as  entirely 
false  and  pernicious.  But  we  shall  maintain  that  ex- 
perimentation should  not  be  considered  as  vocational 
guidance,  and  that  no  method  should  be  adopted  into 
a  plan  for  guidance  until  it  has  adequate  foundation 
in  logic  and  in  good  educational  practice.  Vocational 
guidance  is  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  —  that  is 
very  true ;  but  enough  experiments  have  been  carried 
on,  in  certain  lines,  at  least,  to  show  better  ways  than 
these  we  shall  consider  in  this  chapter. 

The  many  questionable  practices  in  attempted  voca- 
tional guidance  may  be  classified  for  our  purpose  by 
the  theories  or  points  of  view  on  which  they  rest.  We 
shall  distinguish  the  following:  (i)  BeUef  in  the  un- 
proved theory  that  there  are  fixed  and  well-marked 
types  of  mind ;  (2)  Overestimation  of  what  psychologi- 
cal tests  can  at  present  do ;  (3)  BeHef  that  qualities 
of  mind  are  general  and  transferable,  rather  than  spe- 
cific ;  (4)  Overestimation  of  the  importance  of  physical 
characteristics;    (5)  The  encouragement  of  morbid  self- 

143 


144  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

examination ;  (6)  Overguidance ;  (7)  Commercial  agen- 
cies ;  (8)  Lack  of  social  perspective ;  (9)  Control  of 
vocational  guidance  by  other  departments  or  by  non- 
educational  organizations. 

Belief  in  the  Unproved  Theory  that  there  are  Well- 
marked  Types  of  Mind.  —  Are  there  distinct  types  of 
mind?  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  evidence,  from 
authority,  at  least,  is  imposing.  Let  us  see  if  it  is  con- 
firmed by  experiment,  note  how  the  theory  works  in 
practice,  and  judge  it  by  its  fruits. 

In  our  treatment  of  this  subject  we  shall  consider 
first,  the  common  classification  into  object-minded  and 
symbol-minded,  second,  other  classifications  by  types, 
and  third,  the  educational  implications  of  the  theory 
of  types. 

Are  there  "Thing-thinkers"  and  "Idea-thinkers"? 
—  A  New  England  superintendent  of  schools  said  re- 
cently that  at  the  age  of  thirteen  two  types  of  children 
are  discoverable  —  the  bookish  and  the  manual.  In 
another  city  the  school  psychologist  has  organized  a 
"  practical-arts  "  class  for  the  "  object-minded,"  leaving 
the  "  symbol-minded  "  in  the  regular  classes.  Another 
classification  has  it  "  motor-minded "  and  "  mind- 
minded;"  another  "concrete-minded"  and  "abstract- 
minded;"  another  "dynamic"  and  "sedentary." 
Sincerely  interested  in  the  vocational  guidance  of  the 
students,  an  enthusiastic  vice  principal  wrote  an 
article  for  the  school  paper,  in  which  occurred  this 
statement : 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  145 

Are  you  mechanically  dexterous?  Are  you  a  handy  boy? 
Then  surely  the  industrial  world  with  its  crafts  and  its  trades, 
its  manufacturing,  and  its  mechanic  arts,  should  be  your 
choice. 

Mrs.  Woolley,  in  her  recent  preliminary  report  of  the 
Cincinnati  investigations,^  distinguishes  four  types : 

1.  Low  in  mental  and  physical  tests  of  ability. 

2.  Low  in  mental  but  good  in  manual  ability. 

3.  High  in  mental  but  low  in  manual  ability. 

4.  High  in  mental  and  manual  ability. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  second  and  third  of  these 
"  types  "  are  respectively  the  "  finger-minded  "  and 
"  idea-minded  "  of  the  other  classifications,  and  that 
the  first  and  fourth  classes  violate  the  theory  of  distinct 
types.  Mrs.  Woolley  does  not  tell  us  the  proportion  of 
children  in  each  of  the  four  classes.  An  attempt  to  do 
this  would  probably  break  up  the  classification.  She 
does  tell  us,  in  another  article,-  that  149  children  were 
tested  with  regard  to  their  simple  motor  and  mental 
abilities,  and  it  was  found  that  those  who  were  best 
in  the  mental  tests  were  also,  on  the  whole,  best  in  the 
physical  tests  and  in  physical  development. 

Types  of  Thinking  vs.  Types  of  Mind.  —  That  there 
are  tj^^es  of  thinking  no  one  doubts,  nor  that  there  are 
boys  and  girls  w^ho  like  to  use  their  minds  through  the 
use  of  their  hands,  nor  that  some  boys  and  girls  are  more 
practiced  in  one  kind  of  thinking  than  in  another.  But 
so  far  in  the  study  of  "  types,"  there  seems  to  have  been 

1  New  Scale,  etc.,  p.  533.  *  The  Present  Trend,  etc.,  p.  46. 


146  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

no  investigation  made  regarding  the  causes  of  these 
variations.  As  a  substitute  for  such  investigations,  it 
has  invariably  been  assumed  that  because  John  Ukes 
to  think  by  means  of  driving  nails  we  know  that  he  is 
manual-minded,  or,  put  the  other  way  about,  John 
belongs  to  the  manual-minded  type,  therefore  he  likes 
handwork  rather  than  bookwork. 

We  still  have  no  proof  that  these  explanations  do  any 
more  than  travel  in  a  circle.  It  may  be  that  book- 
work  has  been  made  unattractive,  that  the  wrong  kind 
of  reading  matter  has  been  set  before  the  boy.  We 
know  how  assiduously  many  a  boy  has  read  about  elec- 
tricity, because  he  was  constantly  using  his  hands  in 
making  and  installing  electrical  apparatus.  May  it 
not  be  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  school  to  balance  the 
kinds  of  activity  for  the  child,  rather  than  to  unbalance 
them?  At  least  this  proposal  has  as  much  evidence  in 
its  favor  as  the  other,  and  that  it  leads  to  a  sound  or- 
ganization of  the  school  program  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  nowhere  has  prevocational  work  led  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  "  symbol-thinking,"  but  always  to  a 
strengthening  and  vitalizing  of  it  by  relating  it  to  the 
manual  work.  The  implication  seems  to  be  that  the 
symbols  in  the  old  school  were  symbols  of  vague  things, 
while  those  in  the  prevocational  academic  work  are  to 
be  symbols  to  represent  pragmatic  things  —  chairs, 
processes,  acts  of  helpfulness,  success  in  planning  and 
in  working,  concrete  and  satisfactory  accomplishments. 

If  our  school  work  can  offer  to  all  pupils  a  varied 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  I47 

program  of  really  useful  studies,  shall  we  not  have  less 
need  to  ferret  out  types  of  minds  to  put  into  different 
kinds  of  schools  ? 

What  Experiments  have  Shown.  —  Thorndike  has 
summarized  the  arguments  against  the  theory  of  dis- 
tinct types,  and  has  given  the  experimental  data  on 
both  sides  of  the  argument.^ 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  significant  that  almost  every 
experimental  study  of  types  has  led  to  two  findings: 
first,  there  are  many  more  individuals  between  or  com- 
bining the  types  than  there  are  in  the  types  themselves ; 
and  second,  various  intermediary  types  are  discovered. 
In  the  studies  of  imagery  the  division  into  auditory, 
visual,  and  motor  types,  on  which  methods  of  teaching 
spelling  have  been  based,  has  given  way  to  intermediate 
classifications  which  include  most  of  the  children. 
Thorndike  quotes  Meumann  as  stating  that  no  child 
of  pure  type  has  been  discovered,  and  Segal  as  intro- 
ducing a  type  called  "  visual-auditory-motor-intellec- 
tual ! "  2  Between  two  so-called  types  there  are  so 
many  other  cases  that  the  total  representation  approxi- 
mates the  curve  of  normal  distribution.  So  far  as  can 
be  found  out,  no  distribution  by  groups  has  been  found 
true  for  any  mental  quality,  unless  special  training  or 
accident  be  the  obvious  cause. ^  Thorndike  concludes  his 
examination  of  certain  experiments : 

^  See  his  Educational  Psychology,   Vol.  Ill,    pp.  360-363,   367-371, 
and  Chap.  XVI. 

2  Thorndike,  p.  374.  '  Thorndike's  Briefer  Course,  pp.  404-410. 


148  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

Intermediate  conditions  are  in  some  of  these  cases  de- 
monstrably, and  in  all  cases  probably,  more  typical  than 
the  supposed  type.     [Vol.  Ill,  p.  381.] 

Again : 

It  is  highly  probable  that,  when  actual  measurements  are 
made,  mediocrity  —  ...  moderately  everything  will  be 
found  to  be  the  one  real  type.     [P.  375.] 

Mrs.  Woolley's  conclusion  that  ability  in  manual  and 
mental  activities  are  in  positive  correlation  is  borne 
out  by  Thorndike's  review  of  the  experiments.  He 
finds  that  desirable  qualities  stand  in  positive  correla- 
tion to  each  other,  —  that  it  is  not  proved  that  there 
are  "  mental  antagonisms,"  a  person  being  good  in 
manual  skill  but  poor  at  abstract  thinking.  "  The 
good  external  observer  may  be  excellent  at  introspec- 
tion, and  the  man  with  a  strong  interest  in  his  inner 
life  of  thought  is  much  more  likely  than  the  average 
man  to  have  a  strong  interest  in  external  affairs."  [P. 
382.]  "  It  is  very,  very  hard  to  find  any  case  of  a  nega- 
tive correlation  between  desirable  mental  functions." 
[P.  362.] 

What  shall  be  done  with  the  "  Manual  Type  "  ?  — 
Without  doubt  the  student  of  vocational  guidance 
wishes  to  foster  the  introduction  of  more  handwork 
into  the  schools ;  without  doubt  also,  however,  he  must 
protest  at  assigning  a  thirteen-year-old  boy  to  a  class 
which  will  become  for  him  an  educational  blind  alley. 
There  are  teachers,  college  presidents,  dentists,  lawyers, 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  149 

and  preachers  who  would  have  been  called  "  object- 
minded  "  had  they  in  their  school  days  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  an  enthusiastic  "  psychologist."  How  can  we 
know  that  the  boy  v/ho  is  just  now  disinclined  toward 
Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake,  and  toward  a  classification 
of  sentences  into  simple,  complex,  and  compound  (sym- 
bols which  probably  no  one  can  show  him  have  any 
value) ,  —  how  can  we  know  that  he  should  therefore 
be  guided  into  a  mechanical  career?  Perhaps  he 
should  cultivate  his  manual  powers,  but  at  the  same 
time  have  an  education  so  broad  that  the  way 
may  be  kept  open  for  him  to  become  a  teacher  of 
manual  work,  an  industrial  manager  or  foreman,  a 
manufacturer,  a  salesman,  a  chemist,  a  surgeon,  a 
patent  lawyer,  an  employment  manager  in  an  indus- 
trial plant,  a  scientific  farmer,  or,  indeed,  a  professor 
of  philosophy. 

Not  only,  as  suggested  above,  is  there  a  likelihood 
that  we  should  find  upon  investigation  that  the  habit 
of  thinking  most  practiced  by  a  given  boy  is  due  to 
influences  in  his  past  and  present  envirorunent,  but 
there  is  also  a  possibility  that  an  individual  changes 
his  habit  of  thinking  as  he  grows  older.  Thus  Winch  ^ 
found  evidence  that  children  change  their  imagery  from 
auditory  predominance  to  visual.  As  there  are  times 
and  circumstances  in  every  day  when  one  favors  either 
abstract  or  concrete  thought,  so  there  are  likely  to  be 
periods  in  his  life  given  over  to  one  kind  of  thinking 
^  P.  460,  see  bibliography. 


150  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

more  than  to  the  other.  If  such  an  hypothesis  be 
even  a  remote  possibility,  it  is  unwise  for  us  to  limit 
the  opportunity  of  any  individual. 

The  way  should  be  kept  open  for  any  development 
which  may  arise  in  the  child's  manner  of  thinking ;  he 
should  be  trained  to  both  kinds  of  thinking  by  both 
mental  and  manual  work,  and  should  be  taught  the 
value  of  abstract  thinking  about  the  hand  work  he  is 
doing.  Correlation  of  the  kinds  of  activity  is  the  task 
of  the  teacher. 

Finally,  too  much  stress  should  not  be  put  on  the 
boy's  present  stock  of  aptitudes,  in  his  choice  of  voca- 
tion. As  Thompson  ^  says  from  his  experience  with 
Boston  boys : 

Grit  and  courage,  I  believe,  have  more  to  do  with  success- 
ful adjustment  to  the  job  than  special  aptitude  .  ,  .  Moral 
attitude  has  scored  to  count  more  than  fortiuiate  mental 
and  physical  gifts.  What  vocational  counselor  would  have 
advised  the  youthful  Demosthenes  to  study  oratory? 

Other  Classifications  by  "  Types."  —  Classification  is 
such  an  alluring  temptation  that  it  is  not  surprising 
there  should  be  a  liberal  assortment  of  categories  into 
which  to  pigeonhole  any  particular  individual.  Thus 
we  find  Schneider,  from  his  experience  in  Cincinnati," 
proposing  sixteen  ways  of  dividing  twenty-year-old 
boys  into  two  classes : 

1  Vocational  Guidance  in  Boston,  p.  18. 

2  Selecting,  etc. 


PSEUDC-GUIDANCE  151 


(«) 

Physical  strength 

Ul 

Deliberate 

Physical  weakness 

Impulsive 

ib) 

Mental 

0) 

Music  sense 

Manual 

(k) 

Color  sense 

(c) 

Settled 

Q) 

Manual  accuracy 

Roving 

Manual  inaccuracy 

(d) 

Indoor 

(m) 

Mental  accuracy  (logic) 

Outdoor 

Mental  inaccuracy 

ie) 

Directive 

in) 

Concentration       (mental 

Dependent 

focus) 

CO 

Original  (creative) 

Diffusion 

Imitative 

(0) 

Rapid    mental    coordina- 

(g) 

Small  scope 

tion 

Large  scope 

Slow  mental  coordination 

(h) 

Adaptable 

iP) 

Dynamic 

Self-centered 

Static 

Schneider  hastens  to  warn  us  of  the  danger  of  hasty 
judgment,  and  to  state  that  one  may  belong  to  both 
types,  —  may  be  "  both  mental  and  manual,  or  both 
an  indoor  and  an  outdoor  man  " ;  and  that  "  further, 
one  may  not  possess  either  characteristic  to  any  marked 
degree."  Like  Mrs.  Woolley,  however,  he  does  not 
estimate  the  relative  number  belonging  to  well-marked 
types  and  not  belonging  to  such  types. 

We  are  given  in  this  article  no  concrete  data ;  only 
the  opinion  that  such  types  exist,  based  on  the  author's 
experience  in  the  cooperative  schools  in  the  University 
of  Cincinnati.  We  can  hardly  adopt  it  without  more 
evidence.  It  is  a  characteristic  of  the  writings  of  Dickens 
that  he  puts  the  people  of  his  stories  into  sharp  lights 
and  deep  shadows,  so  that  we  find  in  his  books  well- 
marked  types  which  we  do  not  find  in  real  life.     Dickens 


152  THE   VOCATION AL-GUroANCE  MOVEMENT 

saw  and  magnified  the  peculiarities  of  men.  Such  a 
habit  of  mind  may  prove  delightful  in  a  novelist,  but 
it  can  hardly  be  of  use  to  a  vocational  counselor.  Per- 
haps Dean  Schneider  realizes  this,  for  he  says  just  be- 
fore his  conclusion : 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  for  the  present,  vocational  guid- 
ance can  only  point  out  in  which  t3TDes  of  occupations  an 
individual  will  in  all  probability  not  be  successful. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  authors  of  a  new  high- 
school  textbook  for  life-career  classes  (Go win  and  Wheat- 
ley)  should  have  used  and  elaborated  Schneider's  classi- 
fications. 

Another  classification  has  been  proposed  by  Pro- 
fessor Giddings,  in  a  recent  address  at  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University : 

Does  the  child  that  you  are  watching  begin  to  lead,  to 
dictate,  to  suggest,  to  set  examples,  or  does  he  show,  from 
earliest  years,  that  he  is  a  born  imitator,  a  copyist,  a  fol- 
lower? ...  If  you  are  a  teacher,  if  you  are  a  parent,  if 
you  are  interested  in  the  child,  the  sooner  you  discover  to 
which  of  the  classes  your  child  belongs,  the  sooner  you  will 
be  on  the  right  track  in  guiding  the  further  development  of 
his  character  and  his  mind.^ 

"  Born  imitator,"  we  are  told,  and,  ''  the  sooner 
you  can  discover."  Thus  we  are  not  dealing  with  types 
of  twenty-year-old  minds,  but  with  types  determined 
before  birth!     The  address  contains  Httle  attempt  at 

1  Giddings,  p.  24. 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  I53 

evidence,  the  rhetoric  being  of  the  hortatory  "  type  " 
rather  than  the  scientij&c.  Moreover,  nothing  is  said 
about  accidental  circumstances  which  determine,  in- 
fluence, or  alter  a  child's  behavior :  what  kind  of  parents 
has  he  to  live  with?  has  he  older  or  younger  brothers 
or  sisters?  is  he  equipped  with  educative  toys?  has  he 
had  early  playmates,  and  were  they  older  or  younger? 
Neither  is  anything  said  about  those  children  who  may 
reside  comfortably  between  these  two  "  types "  and 
show  no  marked  tendencies  to  either  extreme. 

No  doubt  we  may  find,  if  we  divest  ourselves  of  the 
mania  to  classify  and  find  types,  that  a  given  child  is 
"  directive  "  at  one  moment  of  the  day,  and  meek  at 
another ;  aggressive  about  his  own  toys,  but  submissive 
in  strange  surroundings;  willing  to  lead  in  games  he 
knows,  and  to  follow  in  others.  We  can  agree  with 
Professor  Giddings  in  his  conclusions  about  the  need 
of  socializing  the  individual,  but  we  can  maintain  that 
neither  for  that  nor  for  the  purposes  of  vocational 
guidance  is  it  necessary  to  read  into  him  a  classification 
unfounded  on  facts. 

Another  classification  (Blumenthal)  ^  is  stated  as 
follows : 

There  are  three  types  of  school  children : 

I.  The  coarse  type. 
II.  The  fine  type. 
III.   The  medium  type. 

'  Central  Committee,  pp.  14-18.  Puffer's  book  is  founded  on  the 
type  idea,  as  also  on  an  exaggeration  of  heredity ;  see  pp.  59,  62,  Ss- 


154  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

The  context  suggests  that  the  classification  is  to  be 
undertaken  when  the  child  is  four  years  of  age.  For 
every  type  there  is  a  positive  and  a  negative.  No 
estimate  of  relative  numbers  belonging  to  the  different 
types  is  given.  After  describing  each  type  the  author 
proceeds : 

Now  after  the  teacher  has  classified  the  types,  and  any 
teacher  of  average  intelligence  can  do  this  easily,  he  will  be 
anxious  to  group  the  types  according  to  their  quality  —  their 
mental  and  physical  standards.  Grouping  the  types  is  very 
interesting  work  [sic].  For  this  some  practical  psychological 
knowledge  is  required.  The  easiest  way  for  a  beginner  is 
to  group  his  types  in  the  following  classes : 

1.  Mentally  strong  and  physically  weak. 

2.  Physically  strong  and  mentally  weak. 

3.  Physically  and  mentally  weak. 

4.  Harmonious  —  mentally  and  physically  well-balanced. 

5.  Advanced  or  degenerate. 

Such  a  classification,  presented  without  evidence, 
should,  after  what  we  have  said  above,  furnish  its  own 
refutation. 

The  notorious  classification  of  persons  into  round 
pegs  and  square  pegs  has  fortunately  almost  disappeared 
from  the  modern  literature  of  vocational  guidance.  It 
is  significant  that  the  references  to  types  of  mind  are 
diminishing  in  the  literature  of  vocational  guidance.  Is 
it  not  now  the  time  to  abandon  them  altogether,  as 
having  no  evidence  in  their  support,  as  tending  to  crys- 
tallize the  procedure  of  vocational  guidance  into  a 
machine-like  operation,  and  as  helping  to  obscure  the 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  I55 

fact  that  every  child  is  entitled  to  be  treated  so  far  as 
possible  without  reference  to  the  characteristics  of  other 
children  ? 

Classifications  should  be  known  by  the  company  they 
keep :  it  was  the  business  of  astrology,  palmistry,  and 
phrenology  to  pigeonhole  into  fixed  classifications  the 
individuals  who  applied  to  them.  For  the  typical  kinds 
of  brains,  as  described  in  Fowler's  Phrenology,  we  are 
now  asked  to  substitute  typical  kinds  of  minds  —  kinds 
that  correspond  more  or  less  closely  with  the  phre- 
nologist's categories. 

Educational  Implications  of  the  Classifications.  —  The 
reason  for  attempting  a  classification  is  that  we  may 
subject  the  children  in  the  two  classes  to  different  kinds 
of  educational  treatment.  That  this  aim  is  a  desirable 
one  is  shown  by  all  the  progressive  efforts  to  differen- 
tiate courses  for  children  —  to  take  account  of  individ- 
ual differences,  in  the  administration  of  the  school  and 
its  program.  For  this  work  the  child's  requirements 
must  be  studied.  But  there  is  neither  need  nor  justi- 
fication for  using  fixed  or  questionable  classifications  in 
making  this  study.  Individual  differences  in  mental 
traits  are  rapidly  being  measured,  and  they  approximate 
the  normal  distribution.  The  teacher  needs  neither  to 
try  to  diminish  nor  to  accentuate  the  deviation  of  any 
individual  from  the  mean.  He  need  only  provide  for 
the  child's  development,  adjusting  the  curriculum  to 
his  present  requirements,  and  keeping  the  way  open 
for  a  change  of  treatment  at  any  time. 


156  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Overestimation  of  what  Psychological  Tests  can  at 
present  Do.  —  Our  second  class  of  false  guidance  has  to 
do  with  tests.  We  have  already  quoted  Bloomfield  and 
Ayres  ^  regarding  what  these  tests  can  do.  Their  state- 
ments, conservative  as  they  are,  seem  to  be  too  sanguine. 
Ayres  ^  states  as  the  substance  of  achievement  up  to 
October,  1913 : 

At  the  present  time  we  possess  a  rudimentary  knowledge 
of  the  qualifications  demanded  in  four  occupations  —  those 
of  inspector  of  bicycle  balls,  motorman,  telephone  operator, 
and  t5^ewriter. 

The  evidence,  even  for  this  modest  claim,  is  not  very 
satisfactory.  There  is  nothing  to  prove,  for  example, 
that  testing  the  reaction  time  of  the  girls  who  sorted 
the  bicycle  balls  was  as  good  a  test  as  would  have  been 
an  actual  trial  at  the  exercise  which  that  occupation 
demands.^  The  second  and  third  sets  of  tests  are  drawn 
from  Miinsterberg's  experiments."*  Yet  his  experiments 
were  designed  to  show  a  method  rather  than  a  result, 
and  have  never  been  adopted  in  commercial  Hfe. 

1  Chapter  IV.  2  Nat.  V.  G.  Assn.,  p.  36. 

'  This  bicycle-ball  test  is  now  abandoned,  but  the  report  of  it  promises 
to  go  on  for  an  indefinite  time  echoing  through  the  writings  of  those 
searching  for  help  from  psychology.  So  little  does  the  science  teach  us 
yet,  and  so  much  are  short  cuts  sought  after  ! 

^  Professor  Miinsterberg's  tests  are  criticized  in  the  article  in  The  Un- 
popular Review  (Breese),  especially  that  for  sea-captains.  The  test  is 
not  explicitly  designed  as  an  adequate  method  of  selecting  captains,  yet 
each  page  of  the  chapter  is  headed  "Ship  Service."  This  test  has  been 
won  on  speed  alone.  It  is  based  on  the  naive  assumption  that  accurate, 
quick  judgment  in  sorting  cards  can  measure  good  judgment  in  man- 
aging a  ship ! 


PSEUDO-GUroANCE  157 

The  "  typewriting  test  "  is  based  on  an  experiment  by 
Professor  Lough.^  His  theory  is  that  typewriting  in- 
volves habit-formation;  therefore  as  a  test  in  habit 
formation  sheets  of  paper  are  given  out,  each  sheet 
containing  rows  of  letters  and  bearing  at  the  top  a  key 
in  which  each  letter  of  the  alphabet  is  represented  by 
another  letter  as  a  symbol.  This  exercise  is  given  as  a 
test  of  speed  in  transcribing  and  learning  the  key, 
twenty  tests  in  as  many  days,  and  it  is  assumed  that 
the  results  will  show  who  is  fitted  for  the  typewriting 
occupation  and  who  is  not.  But  this  conclusion  rests 
solely  on  this  one  experiment,  whose  results  when  cor- 
related with  school  marks  in  each  of  four  studies,  German, 
mathematics,  typewriting,  and  business  forms  and 
stenography,  show  a  high  degree  of  positive  relation 
with  t>pewriting.  He  concludes  that  from  such  tests 
in  habit-formation  "  it  would  be  possible  to  select  those 
who  are  likely  to  succeed  in  typewriting,  and  to  give  a 
vocation  to  those  who  would  not  succeed."  Here  is  a 
curious  compound  petitio  principii.  In  the  first  place 
the  tests  are  not  measured  against  real  success  in  the 
occupation  of  typewriting,  but  only  against  school  courses 
in  the  subject.  In  the  second  place,  the  school  marks 
in  the  classes  in  typewriting  are  used  as  the  standard 
to  validate  the  test,  after  which  the  test  is  to  be  used  to 
supplant  the  school  marks  and  provide  a  short-cut 
method  of  determining  capability  for  the  course  and  the 
occupation.     If  our  previous   conclusions   are   correct, 

*  See  Nat.  Conference,  pp.  89-96. 


158  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE    MOVEMENT 

we  must  raise  three  serious  objections  to  the  method. 
First,  habit-formation  is  but  one  of  the  mental  elements 
in  learning  to  typewrite,  and  perhaps  not  the  most  im- 
portant. There  are  spelhng,  neatness,  common  sense, 
and  general  education  to  be  reckoned  with.  Second, 
certain  moral  qualities  may  enter  in  such  a  way  as  to 
upset  completely  conclusions  based  on  such  a  test,  — 
persistence,  for  example,  may  finally  win  out  against 
great  odds.^  Third,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  section, 
habit-formation  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  general  quality, 
to  be  transferred  at  will  from  a  substitution  test  to  type- 
writing. 

The  statement  by  Bloomfield  may  prove  true  —  it 
may  be  that  tests  will  aid  a  fifteen-year-old  boy  in  choos- 
ing between  professional,  business,  or  mechanical  study. 
So  far,  no  tests  have  been  adequate  to  prove  or  dis- 
prove the  hypothesis.  As  Bloomfield  says,  tests  can 
hardly  show  ability  to  influence  men  ^  and,  as  we  have 
noted  in  another  connection,  they  have  not  yet  shown 
general  improvability. 

The  whole  question  of  the  danger  in  overestimation 
of  what  psychological  tests  can  do,  as  well  as  the  theory 

^  Professor  Lough  suggests  the  desirability  of  testing  emotional 
control,  but  outlines  no  method.  Added  to  the  above  strictures,  this 
observation  seems  to  have  escaped  the  experimenter,  —  that  some  who 
study  typewriting  have  no  intention  of  making  it  their  calling.  It  seems 
desirable  that  everybody  should  learn  to  typewrite  at  least  as  fast  as 
he  can  write.  Finally,  one  wonders  whether  twenty  trials  at  tj^ewrit- 
ing  itself  might  not  prove  a  better  index  of  ability  than  those  here  used, 
if  an  index  must  be  sought. 

2  Youth,  etc.,  p.  62. 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  1 59 

of  types,  is  discussed  by  Dr.  H.  D.  Kitson,  University 
of  Chicago.  His  two  articles  form  an  excellent  antidote 
for  the  conception  we  are  combating.  (See  Bibliog- 
raphy.) He  quotes  approvingly  Professor  James's  ob- 
servation that,  "  However  closely  psychical  changes 
may  conform  to  law,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  individual 
histories  and  biographies  will  never  be  written  in  advance 
no  matter  how  '  envolved  '  psychology  may  become."  * 
Other  recently  written  papers  indicate  that  a  saner 
view  is  being  taken.  In  School  ajid  Society  for  June  26, 
1915,^  Hollingworth  discusses  the  various  kinds  of 
tests  and  concludes  that  Mrs.  Woolley's  records  may 
prove  of  value,  but  that  others  are  open  to  question. 
He  concludes  : 

It  is  essential  that  interest  in  this  eminently  practical 
use  of  the  psychological  laboratory  be  sustained  among 
those  who  are  responsible  for  the  further  promotion  of  its 
methods  and  problems.  It  is  equally  undesirable  that 
public  expectation  should  be  strenuously  directed  toward 
the  laboratory  before  it  has  done  more  than  outline  a  series 
of  problems  and  attempt  a  few  trivial  and  preliminary  efforts 
toward  their  solution. 

In  the  issue  of  June  19,  1915,^  Hancock  of  the  University 
of  Cincinnati  says  that  Dean  Schneider  and  Professor 
Breese,  after  three  years  of  experimental  work,  have 

*  Principles  of  Psychology,  Vol.  II,  p.  576. 

*  Pp.  920,  922.  Hollingworth's  book,  Vocational  Psychology,  is  helpful 
and  conservative.  However,  one  wonders  whether  there  is  yet  any  real 
body  of  vocational  psychology. 

3  P.  899. 


l6o  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

SO  far  been  able  to  find  no  correlation  between  the  results 
of  the  psychological  tests  and  known  abilities. 

Employers  have  been  particularly  credulous  regard- 
ing psychological  tests  and  gulHble  about  actual  chi- 
canery, but  we  find  Richard  A.  Feiss,  general  manager, 
The  Clothcraf t  Shops  of  the  Joseph  and  Feiss  Company, 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  saying  that  outside  of  such  practical 
examinations  as  the  color  tests  for  railway  engineers 
psychological  tests  will  not  aid  materially  in  the  problem 
of  employing.^ 

There  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  amending  in  any  way 
Mrs.  Woolley's  statement  at  the  second  conference  that 
"  an  intelligent  interest,  extending  over  the  early  years 
of  school  life,  ought  to  furnish  a  more  adequate  basis 
for  judgment  about  the  child's  future,  than  any  set  of 
laboratory  tests  could  supply.  Experimental  psy- 
chology is,  as  yet,  a  coarse  and  clumsy  tool,  attacking 
a  very  difl&cult,  delicate,  complex  problem."  ^ 

Superintendent  Thompson,  speaking  at  the  Rich- 
mond Convention,  said :  ^ 

The  few  scientific  tests  for  vocational  aptitudes  that  we 
now  possess  give  us  more  of  concern  than  of  promise.  .  .  . 
For  the  present,  at  least,  the  vocational  counselor  will  ob- 
tain greatest  advantage  from  the  study  of  the  general  em- 
ployment situation  of  his  community.  .  .  .  Common  sense, 
broad  sympathies,  and  knowledge  of  adolescent  tendencies 
will  prove  of  more  worth  to  him  than  acquaintance  with 
intricate  psychological  procedure.    The  practical  methods 

^  Scientific  Management,  etc.,  p.  3. 
2  Nat.  Conference,  p.  85.  ^  Nat.  V.  G.  Assn.,  1914,  p.  19. 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  l6l 

to  be  at  once  adopted  by  vocational  counselors  are  those 
which  are  obvious  rather  than  obscure. 

The  next  thought  in  Superintendent  Thompson's 
paper,  as  quoted  above,  is  one  with  which  we  may  con- 
clude this  section :  that  "  the  school  records  of  pupils 
if  properly  kept  and  reasonably  comprehensive  furnish 
enough  presumptive  evidence  upon  which  effective 
guidance  can  be  tentatively  based."  The  psychologist 
may  help  vocational  counsel  best  by  aiding  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  school  examinations  in  the  various  sub- 
jects :  the  laboratory  should  be  the  schoolroom  and  the 
exercise  the  regular  work  of  the  class.  And  he  may  help 
civil  service  commissions  and  business  establishments  in 
devising  standardized  tests  based  on  the  actual  work  the 
employees  will  be  called  upon  to  do.^ 

The  Belief  that  Qualities  of  Mind  are  General  and 
Transferable,  rather  than  Specific.  —  Vocational  guid- 
ance has  still  another  score  to  settle  with  a  pseudo- 
psychology,  and  this  is  the  beUef  in  the  "  spread  "  or 
transfer  of  mental  qualities.  Can  the  attention  of  a  boy  be 
tested,  so  that  the  conclusion  can  be  drawn  that  he  is 
attentive  or  inattentive  ?  Can  a  simple  examination  be 
devised  to  test  the  powers  of  observation  ?  Can  honesty 
in  examinations  qualify  a  girl  for  the  label,  "  honest  girl  "  ? 
In  short,  are  such  activities  as  attending,  observing,  con- 

1  Scott's  "  Salesmanship  Test "  tests  general  cleverness,  but  has  little 
relation  to  salesmanship.  Seashore's  tests  for  musical  ability  are  prof- 
itable as  showing  what  may  be  done  in  fields  requiring  a  high  order  of 
specialized  ability.  The  testing  now  going  on  in  the  army  at  public  ex- 
pense has  yet  to  prove  its  value. 

M 


1 62  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

centrating,  persisting,  using  energy,  being  fair,  being 
honest,  remembering,  analyzing,  etc.,  if  applied  to  one 
situation,  likely  to  be  applicable  to  all?  We  are,  of 
course,  touching  on  the  whole  question  of  general  train- 
ing or  formal  discipHne.  It  is  the  belief  in  the  general 
nature  and  transferability  of  mental  and  moral  quali- 
ties that  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  beliefs  that  we  have 
just  been  examining :  the  behefs  in  types  and  in  the 
efficacy  of  laboratory  tests. 

A  glance  at  a  few  of  the  blanks  used  in  vocational 
guidance  will  show  how  common  is  the  assumption.^ 

The  doctrine  of  general  training  has  recently  been 
subjected  to  experimental  tests,  and  while  many  psy- 
chologists hold  that  the  data  are  not  yet  conclusive,  few 
persons  who  have  examined  the  modern  literature  of 
the  subject  can  maintain  seriously  that  mental  qualities 
are  general  enough  in  their  nature  to  justify  the  educa- 
tional practice  of  developing  a  quality  in  one  department 
of  life  in  order  that  it  may  spread  to  another  one  more 
desirable.^  Rather,  the  valid  practice  is  to  train  specifi- 
cally for  the  particular  quality  desired.  Thus,  as  has 
been  pointed  out,  the  manual  dexterity  required  to  guide 
a  bicycle  is  quite  different  from  that  needed  by  an  en- 
graver.    Courage  in  facing  a  baseball  pitcher  is  likely 

'See  Parsons,  pp.  37-43,  104;  Readings,  p.  131;  also  references  in 
Chapter  IV. 

2  Following  are  some  important  references  on  the  subject  of  general 
training :  Moore,  Chap.  Ill  (gives  a  historical  sketch  and  a  resume 
of  the  argument  against  the  theory) ;  Pillsbury  and  others ;  Thorndike, 
Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  II ;  Heck ;  Bagley,  Chap.  XIII ;  Judd. 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  1 63 

to  be  entirely  unrelated  to  that  required  in  facing  an 
audience.  Even  memory  is  now  held  to  be  specific :  a 
good  memory  for  athletic  records  does  not  of  itself  mean 
a  good  memory  for  poetry.  Observant  school  people 
have  always  known  that  any  pupil's  standards  of  truth- 
fulness, honesty,  courtesy,  kindness,  good  use  of  English, 
attention,  and  all  the  other  virtues,  vary  with  time  and 
circumstance.  Personal  qualities  are  specific  rather 
than  general.  The  writer  knows  of  a  person  who  is 
deliberate  in  deciding  to  go  to  the  theatre,  but  hasty 
in  choosing  what  to  eat;  fond  of  both  indoor  and  out- 
door work,  with  no  preference  for  either ;  abstract  in 
his  religious  thinking,  and  skillful  with  carpentry  tools; 
inaccurate  in  arguments,  but  accurate  at  figures;  care- 
less in  handwriting,  but  careful  in  typewriting;  de- 
pendent in  buying  clothes,  but  "  directive  "  in  buying 
books ;  observant  of  names,  but  very  unobservant  of 
faces ;  attentive  to  political  arguments,  but  excessively 
inattentive  to  narrative  and  to  music. 

Is  it  not  true  that  emotional  elements,  such  as  the 
desire  for  success,  self-confidence,  excitement,  competi- 
tion, accidental'  associations  which  are  stirred  up, 
strangeness  of  the  laboratory,  —  and  so  many  others 
that  nobody  can  estimate  their  number  or  influence,  — 
are  at  all  times  hidden  denials  of  our  records  in  such 
tests  as  those  for  "  verbal  memory,"  "  auditory  reten- 
tiveness,"  "  left-hand  steadiness,"  "  cancellation  ac- 
curacy," and  "  index  of  fatigue  "  ? 

Until  we  measure  the  index  of  fatigue  in  an  actual 


164  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

football  game,  the  hand  steadiness  in  making  something 
the  child  very  much  wants  to  make,  the  accuracy  in 
throwing  a  ball,  the  verbal  memory  for  sentences  vital 
to  the  child,  and  the  retentiveness  for  something  the 
child  wishes  to  retain,  our  laboratory  measures  cannot 
have  very  much  psychological  accuracy  or  general  utility 
in  school  and  shop. 

What  substitute  procedure  can  we  follow?  In  the 
first  place,  we  can  select  situations  which  illustrate 
human  virtues,  and  we  can  then  make  a  conscious  efifort 
to  point  out  the  ways  in  which  these  principles  can  be 
applied  to  other  situations.  Thus  neatness  in  arith- 
metic papers  gives  certain  benefits ;  such  and  such  of 
these  benefits  hold  true  of  papers  in  composition.  In 
the  second  place,  we  may  seek  concrete  situations,  and, 
instead  of  asking  a  boy  if  he  is  honest,  ask  him  what  he 
would  do  under  certain  hypothetical  circumstances,  and 
why.  In  the  third  place,  we  ought  to  define  "  efl5- 
ciency  "  and  "  success  "  with  our  pupils,  and  should 
strive  to  give  them  the  habit  of  succeeding  in  repeated 
instances  of  socially  useful  tasks.  Then,  if  we  wish 
measured  results,  they  should  be  computed  on  the  basis 
of  the  success  of  the  boy  or  girl  in  these  tasks. 

What  we  need  to  do,  in  other  words,  is  to  cultivate 
desirable  habits  in  every  activity  and  relation  of  life, 
without  depending  on  the  transfer  of  quaHties  from  one 
department  of  life  to  another.^ 

1  Artificial  tests  may  yet  discover  short-cut  methods  of  judging  char- 
acter ;  the  point  here  made  is  that  they^must,  for  the  present,  be  disre- 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  1 65 

Overestimation  of  the  Importance  of  Physical  Char- 
acteristics. —  The  fourth  kind  of  questionable  guidance 
is  based  on  an  exaggeration  of  the  importance  of  phys- 
ical qualities.  Not  only  have  we  forgotten  Plato's  true 
doctrine  that  a  good  body  will  not  by  its  own  excellence 
make  the  soul  good/  but  we  have  also  grown  into  a 
materialistic  centering  of  the  thought  on  bodily  charac- 
teristics. There  are  courses  for  business  men  in  which 
blonds  and  brunettes,  brown  eyes  and  blue,  aquiline 
faces,  small  lips,  and  tapering  hands,  are  discussed  in 
their  vocational  significance.  It  is  supposed  that  em- 
ployment managers  can  by  this  means  find  short  cuts 
to  "  size  up  "  applicants  and  tell  which  to  hire  and  which 
to  reject.  Current  magazines  are  supplied  with  the 
advertisements  of  the  people  who  furnish  such  informa- 
tion. A  new  book  has  recently  appeared,  in  which  is 
told  how  to  analyze  character  and  ability  at  first  sight. 
The  effect  of  these  experiments  goes  deeper  than  mere 
loss  of  money  and  disappointment ;  it  involves  the  in- 
justice of  misjudging  men.  This  teaching  goes  on  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  not  even  criminals  can  be  discovered 
by  their  faces;  if  they  were,  the  work  of  detectives 
would  be  easier.  Some  men  say  they  can  tell  whether 
or  not  a  man  is  a  good  workman  by  the  way  he  picks 

garded  for  vocational  guidance,  and  they  must  free  themselves  of  their 
dependence  on  the  transfer  theory.  It  is  to  be  noted  here  that  we  are 
not  discussing  the  subject  of  psychological  tests  for  determining  mental 
backwardness;  the  best  of  such  tests  are  founded  on  specific  items  of 
knowledge. 

*  Republic,  III,  403. 


1 66  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

up  a  hammer,  and  Fullerton  tells  about  an  employment 
manager  who  judges  boys  by  whether  or  not  they  re- 
spond to  certain  arbitrary  orders  and  mental  sugges- 
tions he  throws  out.^ 

The  schools  cannot  cooperate  with  employment  man- 
agers who  taint  themselves  with  such  doctrines.  Yet 
who  does  not  know  a  teacher  or  two  who  occasionally 
makes  snap  judgments,  or  "  sizes  up  "  her  pupils  the 
first  day?  Even  the  counselor  may  sometimes  be 
tempted  to  say :  "  This  girl  is  too  short  to  be  a  good 
teacher,"  or,  "  That  boy  is  not  strong,  so  he  ought  not 
to  do  indoor  work."  No  such  statements  have  a  place 
in  vocational  guidance.  The  physical  requirements 
have  not  yet  been  standardized  even  for  athletic 
events  and  professional  baseball.  Further,  the  physical 
examination,  as  such,  can  tell  nothing  about  the 
person's  courage,  perseverance,  kindness,  ability  to 
cooperate,  nor  even  much  about  his  ability  to  gain  in 
physique. 

The  best  way  would  be  for  the  counselor  to  tell  the 
requirements  for  the  occupation,  and  to  raise  the  ques- 
tion of  physique,  general  health,  or  apparent  defect 
as  a  problem  likely  to  be  met  and  therefore  necessary 
to  consider.  Advice  is  appropriate ;  prophecy  must  be 
avoided.     The  person  himself  must  decide. 

It  is  reported  that  some  of  the  members  of  an  occu- 
pational bureau  in  New  York  City  are  taking  one  of 

1  See  Bibliography.  He  offers  no  evidence  that  the  psychological  or 
other  tests  are  valid. 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  1 67 

the  courses  given  by  a  leading  exponent  of  character 
analysis  and  vocation-determination-at-the-first-inter- 
view,  their  excuse  being  that  while  the  theories  and 
practices  expounded  in  the  course  are  very  largely 
"  rubbish,"  nevertheless  the  teacher  herself  is  a  woman 
of  great  common  sense  and  gives  them  some  valuable 
information  which  they  can  use  in  their  placement 
activities.  This  shows  the  dangers  to  which  the  vo- 
cational-guidance movement  is  exposed  by  those  sup- 
posed to  be  its  friends.  Here  are  educated  persons, 
who,  instead  of  making  painstaking  study  of  the  educa- 
tional, sociological,  and  economic  aspects  of  their  prob- 
lems, resort  to  admitted  charlatanism  for  the  purpose 
of  finding  a  short  cut.  Just  at  the  time  when  more  and 
more  employers  are  making  a  scientific  study  of  their 
problems  and  are  abandoning  rule  of  thumb  on  the  one 
hand  and  mystic  methods  and  guesswork  on  the  other, 
these  people  are  going  back  to  methods  no  better  than 
astrology  and  phrenology.  What  an  assumption  of 
superiority,  besides,  that  they  can  separate  the  good 
from  the  evil !  The  movement  for  vocational  guidance 
has  had  quite  enough,  already,  of  the  method  of  mixing 
good  and  evil.  It  is  time  now  for  a  separation  between 
those  who  wish  to  study  and  learn  and  those  who  wish 
to  juggle  and  dream. 

Regarding  the  sanguine  beliefs  in  mystic  short-cuts,  — 
beliefs  which  die  hard,  —  David  Spence  Hill,  who  ex- 
presses a  particularly  sane  viewpoint  on  the  difficulties 
and  dangers  besetting  the  vocational   counselor,   says 


1 68  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

that  we  must  "  know  the  individual  by  a  method  more 
sure  than  casual  observation,  phrenological  chicanery, 
or  physiognomic  delusion."  ^ 

Morbid  Self-Examination.  —  The  fifth  error  in  some 
plans  of  vocational  guidance,  overemphasis  of  self- 
analysis,  seems  to  be  based  on  the  theory  that  some- 
where in  the  world  there  is  a  niche  for  every  person  to 
fit  into,  and  that  misfits  are  those  who  fail  to  find  their 
destined  places.  It  is  known  now,  however,  that  there 
are  no  such  fixed  niches,  and  that  jobs  need  more  analyz- 
ing and  adjusting  than  do  people.  Boys  and  girls  need 
a  record  of  successful  accomplishments  in  a  variety 
of  useful  fields ;  this  the  schools  of  the  near  future  will 
give  them.  A  list  of  useful  acts  is  as  much  better 
than  a  Hst  of  quahties  as  works  are  better  than  mere 
faith. 

That  vocational  guidance  must  free  itself  from  those 
questions  which  overemphasize  self-analysis  must  be 
evident  through  an  examination  of  the  blanks  used  in 
present  practice  (see  references,  pp.  io6,  162).  Ques- 
tions on  manners  ^  are  not  so  objectionable,  though  they 
may  foster  the  attitude  of  the  Pharisee.  But  such 
questions  ^  as  the  following  serve  no  good  purpose  in  a 

^  Nat.  V.  G.  Assn.,  1914,  p.  37.  We  have  spoken  of  the  misuse  of 
hereditary  influences,  in  Chapter  IV.  Puffer's  book  furnishes  extreme 
examples,  pp.  59-62,  83-86.  The  counselor  can  find  no  practical  use  for 
investigating  family  trees. 

2  Parsons,  p.  32. 

^  Note  that  most  of  the  objectionable  questions  are  based  on  the  gen- 
eral discipline  theory. 


PSEXJDO-GUIDANCE  1 69 

printed  blank :  "  Do  you  consider  yourself  absolutely 
honest?  "  "  What  vices  do  you  have  to  fight  down  in 
yourself?"  ''Are  you  stubborn?"  "What  are  your 
limitations  and  defects?"  Questions  of  this  nature 
lead  to  statements  like  these  two  taken  from  the  case- 
letter  file  of  the  Boston  Vocation  Bureau :  "  I  always 
like  to  joke  and  to  improve  things."  "  I  feel  unrest, 
due  to  the  conviction  that  I  am  cut  out  for  something 
big  and  fine." 

Self-analysis  has  the  hypnotic  effect  of  fastening  on 
us  the  qualities  we  set  down ;  to  a  great  degree  we  have 
the  qualities  we  think  we  ha-'-e.  This  is  illustrated  in 
the  paper  on  Self-Analysis  by  High  School  Girls  ^  in 
which  the  girls  chose  their  vocations  partly  on  the  basis 
of  classifying  themselves  as  "  thing- thinkers  "  or  "  idea- 
thinkers." 

So  far  as  may  be  discovered,  no  concrete  evidence  has 
been  presented  to  prove  that  the  young  person's  analysis 
of  himself  is  valid.  We  know  that  we  adults  encounter 
frequent  surprises,  both  in  ourselves  and  in  others  whom 
we  know  best,  and  that  we  can  never  be  even  approxi- 
mately sure  of  success  in  a  new  venture  until  we  have 
made  an  actual  trial.  Yet  we  ask  the  fourteen-year- 
old  boy  to  tell  us  his  talents  and  characteristics  and  then 
to  choose  his  vocation.  Even  adults  cannot  be  trusted 
in  self -analysis.     In  the  words  of  Burns : 

"  O  wad  some  Pow'r  the  gif tie  gie  us 
To  see  oursels  as  ithers  see  us ! " 

•  Nat.  Conference,  p.  loi. 


lyo  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Three  substitutes  for  detailed  self-analysis  may  be 
tried.  We  may  first  obtain  the  question  and  rating 
sheets  from  business  houses  in  the  community,  using 
these  as  a  basis  for  showing  the  qualities  demanded,  and 
for  suggesting  that  each  person  must  prepare  himself 
to  meet  the  scrutiny  of  these  questions.  Second,  we 
may  arrange  our  school  program,  and  the  occupational 
experiences  of  persons  entering  upon  work,  so  that  each 
bad  trait  or  defect,  so  far  as  is  humanly  possible,  will 
be  crowded  out  by  the  development  of  an  appropriate 
good  habit.  Finally,  we  may  adopt  the  plan  of  ob- 
taining composite  opinions  of  teachers  and  others  in- 
terested in  the  child,  as  suggested  in  Chapter  IV. 
These  opinions  are  built  up  out  of  the  special  qualities 
the  child  has  shown  in  the  varied  work  and  play  of  the 
efl&cient  school,  and  they  will  no  doubt  prove  a  far 
better  index  of  the  character  of  the  child  than  will  his 
own  self-analysis. 

Overguidance.  —  Two  high  school  teachers,  both  col- 
lege graduates,  went  out  of  their  way  to  "  take  an  in- 
terest in  "  and  advise  a  certain  pupil,  and  both  of  them 
told  him  that  on  account  of  various  limitations  it  was 
useless  for  him  to  think  of  going  to  college.  He  had 
already  made  himself  an  expert  salesman,  working 
afternoons  and  Saturdays  in  a  large  clothing  store,  was 
an  excellent  student,  and  was  a  leader  in  the  affairs 
of  the  high  school.  Here  was  an  obvious  case  of  gratui- 
tous and  erroneous  advice.  The  boy  did  well  in  college 
studies,  serving  as  assistant  in  economics,  and  is  now 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  171 

studying  in  a  graduate  school  and  trj^ing  to  decide 
between  law,  teaching,  and  business.  Naturally  he 
does  not  remember  kindly  the  attempted  guidance  these 
teachers  gave  him. 

Overguidance  may  be  either  positive  or  negative. 
Though  perhaps  the  attempt  deliberately  to  discourage 
a  student's  choice  is  the  more  common  kind,  yet  fre- 
quently cases  occur  in  which  the  counselor  is  tempted 
to  be  sanguine,  or  too  sure  in  the  advice  which  he  has 
given.  Thus,  Parsons'  cases  ^  sometimes  show  more 
confidence  than  seems  warranted. 

Overguidance  is  frequently  impUcitly  advocated  by 
writers  who  apparently  have  not  weighed  the  conse- 
quences of  what  they  are  saying.  The  following  quo- 
tation, for  example,  makes  it  appear  that  the  children 
are  permanently  stamped  with  distinct  quaUties,  and 
that  they  should,  like  so  many  pawns,  be  put  once  and 
for  all  into  their  places : 

A  guidance  bureau  should  be  like  a  type-distributing 
machine,  which  will  take  a  hopperful  of  type,  of  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  place  each  in  its  particular  niche,  in  the 
one  place  of  all  places  where  it  fits.^ 

The  way  to  avoid  overdirective  influence  is  indi- 
cated in  much  that  has  been  said  in  preceding  pages. 
Kitson  speaks  for  the  "  monitory  type  "  of  vocational 
guidance  which  states  facts  and  frees  itself  both  from 
intuition  without  knowledge,  and  zeal  beyond  the  evi- 
dence. 

^  Choosing  a  Vocation,  Chap.  XV.  2  Kelley,  T.  L.,  p.  85. 


172  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Commercial  Agencies.  —  Probably  no  person  other 
than  one  receiving  pay  from  the  applicant  would  ever 
say,  "  This  is  your  vocation."  Such  an  agent  is  bound 
to  produce  something  tangible  at  the  first  interview,  in 
order  that  he  may  send  the  apphcant  away  feeling 
that  the  visit  has  been  worth  money.  The  honest 
counselor  cannot  at  the  first  interview  produce  final 
results  for  a  stranger.  Hence  arises  the  need  for  pro- 
tecting the  pubHc  by  having  all  the  guidance  done  under 
public  auspices,  or  by  agents  responsible  to  boards  of 
well-known  and  trusted  directors. 

As  has  been  noted  in  an  earlier  chapter,  children 
often  get  their  ideas  of  guidance  from  newspaper  ad- 
vertisements, and  are  often  induced  to  read  and  use 
material  which  is  worse  than  trash. 

If  vocational  guidance  will  free  itself  from  all  ex- 
travagant claims,  and  from  the  use  of  methods  not  yet 
vaHd  —  for  on  these  claims  and  methods  the  commercial 
agent  thrives  —  there  will  be  Httle  chance  for  the  coun- 
selor who  charges  a  fee  to  deceive  the  public.  The  school 
courses  in  vocations  should  touch  on  this  kind  of  "  guid- 
ance," so  that  young  people  may  be  forewarned. 

Lack  of  Social  Perspective.  —  "  The  Efficient  Opti- 
mist," is  the  title  of  a  recent  magazine  article  ^  which 
commences  as  follows : 

The  first  idea  to  be  drilled  into  the  mind,  heart,  soul,  and 
body  of  every  human  being  is  the  firm  assurance : 

'*  You  can  I" 
^  Purington,  The  Independent,  Nov.  22,  1915,  p.  309. 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  1 73 

This  advice  is  of  the  sort  so  often  given  to  young 
people,  couched  in  such  expressions  as,  "  develop  per- 
sonal efficiency,"  "  be  a  leader,"  "  strengthen  your  will- 
power," "  never  admit  failure,"  "  get  the  success-habit," 
"  be  a  director,  not  a  follower,"  "  manage  men,"  "  you 
may  be  the  kind  of  steel  that  is  made  into  rails  for  people 
to  run  over,  or  you  may  make  yourself  into  a  watch- 
spring  and  run  the  whole  works  !  " 

Many  of  these  ideals  ^  appear  to  put  success  before 
righteousness ;  they  base  success  on  power  to  do  things, 
without  first  determining  whether  or  not  the  things 
are  worth  doing  at  all.  What  is  there  in  human  will 
power,  that  we  should  so  urge  our  young  people  to  cul- 
tivate it  ?  Is  a  strong  will,  per  se,  a  desirable  quaUty  ? 
These  questions  cannot  be  answered  here,  but  they  are 
worth  better  consideration  than  the  efficiency  experts  have 
given  them.  Will  power  is  necessary,  no  doubt,  in  all 
worthy  undertakings  ;  but  it  has  also  been  at  the  bottom 
of  nearly  every  act  of  murder,  lust,  and  unrighteous  war. 
Will  power  needs  the  check  of  education,  conscience, 
and  social  aim.^ 

1  It  is  true  that  the  author  of  our  first  quotation  includes  in  his  test 
sheet  the  question,  Is  your  final  ambition  unselfish?  But  this  is  not 
enough.  The  writer  knows  of  a  gentleman  whose  final  ambition  is  to 
help  the  cause  of  prohibition.  While  waiting  for  a  "more  convenient 
season"  he  is  engaged  in  some  questionable  real-estate  speculation,  and 
occasionally  patronizes  the  liquor  business. 

2  An  interesting  study  in  this  connection  is  based  on  the  question, 
Is  the  use  of  the  will  more  necessary  in  selfish  or  in  unselfish  undertak- 
ings? Compare,  for  example,  the  works  of  Jesus  or  Socrates  with  those 
of  Alexander  or  Napoleon.  The  answer  is  not  far  to  seek, —  "Not 
my  will,  but  thine,  be  done." 


174  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Mere  material  success  cannot  be  the  goal  of  vocational 
guidance :   moral  guidance  must  accompany  vocational. 

Another  kind  of  guidance  which  shows  a  lack  of  social 
perspective  is  that  in  which  the  boy  or  girl  is  repressed 
and  his  individuality  subordinated  to  the  will  of  another. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  motto  "  I  can  "  means  for 
multitudes  "  I  cannot."  Mere  personal  efficiency,  as 
we  shall  see  in  a  later  place  (Chap.  VII),  is  likely  to 
benefit  the  few  at  the  expense  of  the  many.  The 
acceleration  of  the  competitive  struggle  means  many 
tragic  failures  but  only  a  few  spectacular  "  successes." 
Both  kinds  of  error,  unless  checked  by  our  educational 
programs,  will  only  aggravate  the  hatred  between  the 
classes,  and  add  to  a  problem  already  very  acute  in 
America. 

The  unsocial  doctrines  to  which  young  men  are  exposed 
is  well  shown  by  the  questionable  methods  being  taught 
in  salesmanship.  For  example,  a  widely  circulated  book. 
Influencing  Men  in  Business,  The  Psychology  of  Argu- 
ment and  Suggestion  (Scott),  is  dedicated  "  to  the  young 
business  man  .  .  .  who  is  studying  to  make  his  argu- 
ments more  convincing  and  his  suggestions  more  coer- 
cive." The  book  teaches  that  suggestion  has  greater 
influence  than  argument,  and  that  suggestion  excludes 
comparison  and  criticism  (p.  147).  The  author  shows 
how  suggestive  questions  may  be  used  to  force  a  cus- 
tomer to  decide  to  buy,  and  states  that  such  methods 
"  when  properly  used  .  .  .  are  most  effective  "  (p.  168). 
The  book  concludes : 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  175 

If  in  persuading  men  we  wish  to  depend  upon  the  working 
of  suggestion  we  must  relieve  them,  so  far  as  possible,  of  the 
distressing  necessity  of  deciding,  and  we  must  also  relieve 
them  of  all  difficulty  in  the  steps  necessary  to  carry  out  that 
which  we  have  been  trying  to  suggest  they  should  do.  The 
man  who  is  able  to  relieve  his  prospects  in  these  two  parti- 
culars is  the  man  skilled  in  carrying  his  suggestions  to  a  happy 
conclusion.     [P.  i68.] 

It  would  seem  that  if  such  doctrines  are  to  be  taught 
under  the  name  of  salesmanship,  courses  in  "  buyman- 
ship  "  should  be  taught  as  an  antidote  and  protection. 
At  any  rate,  the  vocational  counselor  can  do  nothing 
but  condemn  such  a  dangerous  attempt  at  vocational 
"  efficiency." 

Control  of  Vocational  Guidance  by  Other  Agencies.  — 
What  is  of  greater  importance  than  the  "  vocational 
guidance  of  youth?  "  Is  it  the  granting  of  work  cer- 
tificates ;  the  enforcement  on  truants  of  the  compulsory 
education  law ;  the  placement  of  children  who  are  un- 
fortunate enough  to  have  to  leave  school ;  the  securing 
by  business  men  of  adequate  help;  the  promotion  of 
vocational  education;  psychological  research  in  the 
schools  ? 

That  vocational  guidance,  like  many  another  move- 
ment, needs  to  be  protected  from  its  supposed  friends, 
is  shown  by  a  statement  by  Healy  in  his  book  The 
hidividiial  Delinquent}  He  is  discussing  the  difficulty 
involved  in  inducing  the  children  to  come  to  his  labora- 

>  Pp.  47-48. 


176  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUroANCE   MOVEMENT 

tory  to  be  examined  for  possible  deficiencies,  and  states 
that  a  good  plan  is  to  tell  them  that  they  are  to  be 
examined  for  their  vocational  abihties,  "  which  indeed 
they  are."  He  continues  that  the  examination  may 
begin  with  vocational  questions,  and  may  then  gradually 
lead  into  the  mental  and  medical  fields.  If  this  sort 
of  thing  goes  on,  vocational  guidance  will  not  only  lose 
its  identity ;  it  will  take  on  all  the  associations  of  patho- 
logical psychology,  and  will  be  thought  fitting  for  only 
those  who  "  have  something  the  matter  with  them." 
Cannot  those  genumely  interested  in  vocational  guidance 
issue  an  injunction  against  such  practices? 

Probably  it  will  be  admitted  that  nothing  less  than 
the  problem  of  education  considered  as  a  whole  is  of 
greater  importance  than  vocational  guidance.  If  this 
be  true,  then  its  work  should  not  be  directed  by  any 
other  subordmate  department.  Vocational  guidance 
must  be  controlled  by  the  main  organization  for  educa- 
tion, the  school  committee  or  board,  through  the  super- 
intendent and  his  assistants,  but  it  should  not  be  con- 
trolled by  any  lesser  power.  For  the  same  reason  that 
associations  of  business  men  should  not  control  the 
vocation  bureau,  neither  the  work-certificate  office  nor 
the  placement  bureau  should  control  it. 

Vocational  guidance  must  develop  its  own  point  of 
view.  Its  problem  is  at  best  a  very  complex  and  diffi- 
cult one.  It  must  not  be  hampered  by  having  to  see 
its  problems  through  the  eyes  of  an  office  with  a  dif- 
ferent purpose. 


PSEUDO-GUIDANCE  177 

Conclusion.  —  No  errors  are  eradicated  by  merely 
fixing  the  attention  on  them  without  turning  the  efifort 
into  the  right  channels.  The  errors  must,  however,  be 
recognized,  and  then  denied  opportunity  for  operation. 
Genuine  and  systematic  study  of  the  complex  problems 
of  vocational  guidance,  no  matter  on  how  small  a  scale, 
is  more  to  be  desired  than  attempts  to  find  by-paths  and 
short-cuts.  Mystical  and  futile  activities  should  be 
abandoned  and  energy  directed  into  improving  the  school 
environment  of  the  child,  studying  the  occupations, 
or  other  legitimate  efforts,  if  real  and  permanent  prog- 
ress is  to  be  made. 

One  of  the  most  necessary  activities  for  the  teacher- 
guide  is  the  study  of  occupations,  for  of  them  he  will 
ordinarily  have  had  least  experience.  Our  inquiry  will 
therefore  proceed  into  that  field.  The  next  two  chapters 
will  deal  with  the  conditions  under  which  young  people 
enter  work  and  the  problems  of  employment,  together 
with  some  economic  and  social  aspects  of  vocational 
guidance. 


N 


CHAPTER  VI 

The  Young  Worker 

"  At  least  two  million  boys  and  girls  in  this  country 
between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  are  working 
for  wages.  They  are  unskilled  at  that  age  and  unable 
to  take  responsibility.  Few  occupations  open  to  them 
offer  any  training  that  enables  them  to  develop. 

"  This  does  not  include  the  additional  army  of  chil- 
dren in  some  of  the  Southern  States  leaving  school  at 
the  tender  age  of  twelve.  During  the  present  year  at 
least  a  milUon  more  childish  wage-earners  upon  reaching 
the  age  of  fourteen  will  enter  the  ranks  of  industry. 
More  than  six  out  of  ten  of  this  multitude  did  not  finish 
the  work  of  the  elementary  school.  More  than  three 
out  of  four  of  them  did  not  reach  the  seventh  year  of  the 
schools  and  more  than  one  out  of  two,  the  sixth.  Almost 
half  of  them  had  not  completed  the  fifth  grade  work. 
Great  numbers  of  them  were  barely  able  to  meet  the  test 
for  illiteracy  necessary  in  order  to  secure  working  cer- 
tificates, which  in  most  of  the  States  is  a  test  on  the  work 
of  the  fourth  grade. ^ 

This  quotation,  based  as  it  is  on  census  reports  and 
on  trustworthy  studies  of  elimination  from  the  public 
schools,  suggests  the  subject  matter  of  the  present 
chapter.     We  are  concerned  with  five  questions  :  (i)  Why 

1  Bidletin  of  Nat.  Soc.  for  Prom,  of  Ind.  Educ. 
178 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER 


179 


do  children  leave  school?  (2)  How  do  they  obtain 
work  ?  (3)  What  kind  of  work  do  they  do  ?  (4)  What 
are  the  opportunities  offered  by  their  work?  (5)  What 
proposals  have  been  made  to  remedy  existing  evils? 
That  these  problems  are  important  is  attested  by  the 
fact  that  scarcely  a  legislative  session  in  any  state  fails  to 
grapple  with  one  or  more  of  them.  They  are  the  burden  of 
two  important  bills  recently  passed  by  the  national  Con- 
gress, the  bill  for  federal  aid  to  industrial  education,  and 
that  to  prohibit  interstate  commerce  in  child-made  goods. 
Why  do  Children  leave  School  ?  —  Two  industrial 
surveys  ^  of  recent  date  present  tables  showing  the 
reasons  given  for  leaving  school : 


Causes  of  Wn-HDHAWAL 

Minneapolis  Elementary  Schools 

Reasons  Given  for  Leaving 
Richmond  Schools 

Left  the  city 

To  attend  private  school 
Death . 

% 
23 
II 

I 
3 

5^ 
2 

I 
2 

2h 

I 

44 

4 

To  go  to  work 

Wanted  to 

Poor  health 

To  support  family     .     .     . 
Had  to  go  to  work     .     .     . 

Graduated 

To  learn  a  trade   .... 
Failure  in  studies       .     .     . 

Moved 

Disagreed  with  teacher 
To  accept  position     .     .     . 

Miscellaneous 

Not  stated 

% 
42 
10 

9 
8 

5, 
4 
4 
3 

I 
I 
I 
2 

10 

Economic  pressure 
Illness  of  pupil    .     .     . 
Illness  in  family 
Physical  defects 
Incapacity  (mental) 
Indifference         ,     . 
Failing  promotion 
Went  to  work     .     . 
Unexplained       .     , 

*  Minneapolis  Sur\'ey,  p.  25 ;    Richmond,  p.  19. 

Figures  are  changed  to  per  cents.  All  such  tables  are  open  to  ques- 
tion, as  Van  Denberg  has  shown  (see  Bibliography)  and  the  classifi- 
cations contain  overlapping  items.  Nevertheless  they  suggest  opinions 
and  tendencies.  For  additional  data  see  Bloomfield,  Readings,  pp.  119, 
123,  238-239,  404,  449;  Davis,  Jesse  B.,  p.  153;  Bloomfield,  Youth, 
etc.,  16,  19;  Ayres,  Laggards,  etc.,  p.  loi ;  Reed,  V.  G.  Report,  pp.  95-97. 


i8o 


THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 


The  Boston  Continuation  School  publishes  the  fol- 
lowing table :  ^ 


Reasons  for  Leaving  the  Regular  Schools.    Boston. 

In  per  cents. 


Boys 

Gtri-s 

Both 

Related  to  economic  conditions  in  the  home 
Related  to  conditions  in  the  school     .     .     . 
Related  to  personal  feelings  of  child  or  atti- 
tude of  parent      

35-0 
56.8 

6.2 

.2 
1.8 

46.4 
42.7 

8.3 

1.2 
1.4 

40.2 
SO-4 

7-1 

.1 
1.6 

Related    only    to    vocational    opportunity 

offered 

No  reason  given 

Will  probably  work  only  during  vacation     . 

'  ■■  '■ -  -           ■  ■«— ■■ 

.6 

At  the  second  national  conference  on  vocational 
guidance  Miss  Colleton  of  Boston  stated  (p.  156)  that 
about  one  third  of  those  leaving  school  needed  to 
for  financial  reasons,  but  that  another  third  left  because 
they  or  their  parents  were  dissatisfied  with  the  work 
of  the  school.  Mrs.  WooUey  at  the  same  meeting  de- 
clared (p.  30)  that  every  investigation  of  economic 
need  among  families  of  working  children,  except  one  in 
the  stockyard  district  of  Chicago,  has  shown  that  three 
fourths  or  more  of  the  families  do  not  absolutely  need 
the  earnings  of  the  children  under  sixteen  years  of  age. 
She  states  that  the  chief  factor  in  sending  children  to 
work  is  their  own  desire  to  go,  and  that  the  chief  reason 
for  this  desire  is  retardation  in  the  school. 


1  Circular,  p.  23. 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER  l8l 

Children  leave  school,  it  appears  from  these  studies, 
largely  because  the  school  fails  to  attract  them.  They 
leave  "  to  go  to  work,"  sometimes  pressed  by  economic 
need,  it  is  true,  but  more  often  because  to  quit  school 
for  going  to  work  seems  to  be  the  ordinary,  expected 
thing  to  do.  Three  remedies  suggest  themselves :  better 
school  program  and  methods,  scholarships  to  help  needy 
children,  and  part-time  work.  These  plans  we  shall 
discuss  later. 

To  the  question,  Does  industry  need  the  labor  of 
children?  a  rapidly  increasing  multitude  of  testi- 
monies answer,  No.  It  is  true  that  in  Southern  cotton 
mills,  where  child  labor  has  always  been  taken  for 
granted,  many  owners  still  feel  that  their  businesses 
cannot  run  without  the  ten-hour  day  of  the  loom  tenders ; 
and  that  an  occasional  factory  manager  in  other  parts 
of  the  country  asks  the  schools  to  place  with  him  what 
he  calls  the  "  product  "  of  the  schools  —  those  who  leave 
at  fourteen.  But  these  conditions  are  not  typical ;  and 
there  seems  no  good  reason  to  amend  the  statement 
resulting  from  the  investigation  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  Settlement : 

Aside  from  parasitic  industries,  there  is  no  economic 
necessity  for  juvenile  labor,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
employers.^ 

An   Iowa   investigation   led   to   a   similar   conclusion.^ 
Meanwhile,  one  state,  Minnesota,  by  a  gradual  process 

^  Bloomfield,  Youth,  etc.,  p.  17. 

2  See  Comm.  of  Educ,  1915,  p.  223. 


l82 


THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 


extending  over  ten  years,  has  raised  the  school  age  for 
all  children  to  the  sixteenth  birthday. 

How  do  Children  Obtain  Work  ?  —  The  settlement 
workers  of  the  United  States  say  that  girls  should  not 
be  required  to  go  about  our  cities  looking  for  work.^ 
Yet  in  Boston  56  per  cent  of  those  girls  between  fourteen 
and  sixteen  who  secured  work  apphed  in  person.  The 
complete  table,  taken  from  the  same  report  referred  to 
above,  is  as  follows : 


Methods    of    Securing     Positions.     Boston 

Sixteen  Years  of  Age 

In  per  cents. 


Children'  under 


Applied  personally 

Through  relatives 

Through  friends 

Positions  offered  unsolicited 

Through  school  or  teachers 

Through  Placement  Bureau 

Through  business  or  trade  associations  . 
Through  social  or  charitable  associations 
Through  employment  agencies  .  .  .  . 
Through  competitive  examinations     .     . 


Boys 

GreT.s 

43-4 

56.5 

18.4 

14.8 

18.7 

18.4 

5-7 

4.6 

•5 

1.2 

1.8 

1.8 

.6 

.1 

10.8 

2.6 

.1 



Both 


50.0 
16.6 
18.2 

5-4 

.8 

1.8 

•4 

6.7 

.1 


If  there  were  jobs  enough  so  that  the  children  could 
choose  something  which  would  lead  them  to  their  voca- 
tion, we  should  have  no  quarrel  with  what  is  told  by 
the  above  table.  We  know,  however,  that  with  many 
of  these  children  the  mere  chance  of  falling  into  one 
place  rather  than  another,  determines  for  them  the  kind 

^  Woods  and  Kennedy,  pp.  17-18. 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER  183 

of  work  they  follow  for  years  to  come.  The  job  chooses 
the  vocation.  The  Richmond  Survey  ^  discloses  the 
fact  that  continued  work  in  their  jobs  does  not  entirely 
reconcile  them  to  their  places,  for  from  three  to  seven 
out  of  every  ten  of  the  young  men  and  women  at  work 
wish  to  change  to  different  occupations. 

We  have  been  considering  the  children  from  fourteen 
to  sixteen.  How  do  the  young  men  and  women  obtain 
their  places  ?  Certainly  in  no  better  ways  than  do  those 
of  younger  years.  The  writer  knows  of  a  boy  of  good 
scholarship  who  made  thirty  futile  applications  for  work 
during  the  two  or  three  days  after  his  graduation  from 
high  school.  He  would  have  taken  almost  any  place 
offered,  regardless  of  any  choice  of  vocation  he  had 
made.  In  other  words,  the  accidental  "  boy  wanted  " 
would  have  determined  his  occupation,  for  several  years, 
at  least.  Bloomfield's  New  York  study  shows  that 
boys  tell  each  other  about  places  vacant.  Mr.  Lord's 
study  ^  disclosed  the  same  accidental  choices. 

It  appears,  then,  that  better  ways  of  getting  work  are 
needed,  and  that  the  school  must  do  what  it  can  to  take 
the  matter  out  of  the  realm  of  chance.  The  vocational 
counselor  must  interest  himself  in  placement.  What 
methods  may  be  used  we  shall  discuss  in  Chapter  VIII. 

What  Kind  of  Employment  does  the  Young  Worker 
Obtain?  —  In  the  1915  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Industrial  Education,  National  Association  of  ^lanu- 
facturers,  the  chairman  of  the  committee,  who  is  also 

1  Pp.  22-24.  '  Readings,  p.  29. 


1 84 


THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 


the  President  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Board  of  Industrial 
Education,  states  that  "  from  fourteen  to  sixteen, 
87  per  cent  of  working  children  are  in  dead-end,  blind- 
alley  jobs.  They  are  not  allowed  to  work  with  ma- 
chinery "  (p.  30). 

The  Boston  Continuation  School  publishes  the  table 
given  below,  but  many  children  classed  as  working  in 
factories  are  in  reality  messengers  in  those  establish- 
ments.^ 

Industries  in   which   Children  under  Sixteen  Years  of  Age 
Find  Occupation,  Boston 


Factories 

Mercantile  establishments     . 
Mechanical  establishments  _ . 
Domestic  and  personal  service 
Messenger  service     .... 

Business  ofl&ces 

Workshops 

Unclassified 


Boys 

Girls 

18.7 

45-4 

40.5 

37-4 

11.8 

3-4 

1.2 

1.8 

10.7 

— 

10.3 

— 

3-4 

11.8 

3-4 

.2 

Both 


30-4 

39-2 

8.2 

1.4 

5-9 
5-8 

7-1 
2. 


It  is  to  be  remembered  that  these  figures  include  full- 
time  workers,  but  do  not  enumerate  the  army  of  part- 
time  workers  :  newsboys,  peddlers'  helpers,  market  boys, 
bootblacks,  and  the  gatherers  of  coal  and  wood  for 
family  use.^ 

1  Probably  the  same  thing  is  true  of  Philadelphia  figures  given  by  Davis 
in  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance,  p.  155.  What  kind  of  work  is  done  is 
of  more  importance  than  in  what  kind  of  an  establishment  the  child 
works. 

2  See  Davis's  Streetland,  Chapters  6-8 ;  see  also  Clopper,  showing  how 
seasonal  work  on  the  farms  cuts  down  school  opportunity,  pp.  189-203. 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER  185 

The  kind  of  work  open  to  children  in  England  was 
made  the  basis  of  the  report  on  the  poor  laws  from  which 
Bloomfield  quotes  in  Youth,  School,  and  Vocation}  It 
was  found  that  only  i8  per  cent  of  the  boys  went  defi- 
nitely into  trades.  The  rest  were  errand  boys,  chore 
boys,  and  the  like. 

All  elementary  school  children  and  their  parents  should 
know  about  the  Chicago  investigations  reported  by  Miss 
Davis  at  the  Richmond  meeting.  Some  of  the  findings 
are  stated  as  follows  : 

It  has  been  found  that  there  are  very  few  positions  which 
offer  even  a  little  training  to  children  under  sixteen  years; 
that  usually  the  only  skill  required  in  any  work  is  speed; 
that  many  employers  do  not  want  children  under  sixteen 
years  of  age  because  the  law  permits  them  to  work  only  eight 
hours  a  day,  and  because  they  are  so  small  and  unreliable, 
that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  bother  with  them ;  that  some 
employers  in  the  very  unskilled  work  prefer  children  of 
fourteen  because  their  fingers  are  more  flexible  and  they  can 
work  faster  (p.  52). 

Bloomfield  defines  a  blind  alley  as  an  employment 
whose  possibihties  for  advancement  are  exhausted  in 
a  short  time ;  an  occupation  or  method  of  carrying  on 
an  occupation  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  no  progress 
in  the  direction  of  increased  intelligence  and  physical 
development.  One  of  the  most  common  blind  alleys  for 
bright  boys  is  the  position  as  errand  boy  in  a  high-class 
estabhshment  such  as  a  broker's  oiTice  or  an  engineer's 

1  Pp.  9-13. 


1 86  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

laboratory.  The  higher  occupations  in  such  businesses 
require  extensive  training,  and  there  is  absolutely  no 
ladder  reaching  up  to  them  from  the  place  of  the  errand 
boy,  mail  boy,  or  elevator  operator.  This  fact  the  boy 
finds  out  after  two  to  four  years'  work  with  some  few 
minor  promotions,  and  leaves  the  place  to  begin  all  over 
again. 

Miss  Colleton  outlines  the  work  open  to  elementary 
school  girls  in  Boston  as  follows : 

There  was  little  or  no  difference  in  the  occupations  open 
to  the  girls  who  graduated  and  those  who  left  before  graduat- 
ing. The  principal  places  open  to  them  were  in  the  depart- 
ment stores  as  bundle  girls  at  S2.50  to  S3. 50 ;  in  the  factories 
at  $3  to  $4 ;  in  stores  as  salesgirls  at  $5  ;  in  tailors'  shops  at 
$2.50  to  $3.50.1 

Neither  the  Richmond  nor  the  Minneapolis  Survey 
is  concerned  primarily  with  the  occupations  of  the 
young  worker.  Our  comment  from  the  Richmond 
Survey,  showing  the  dissatisfaction  among  the  older 
brothers  and  sisters  at  work,  indicates  that  our  former 
conclusions  were  correct :  the  child  of  fourteen  is  fitted 
neither  by  his  own  perspective  nor  by  the  opportunities 
open  to  him  to  choose  his  vocation.  It  is  the  manifest 
duty  of  the  schools,  therefore,  to  supervise  the  employ- 
ment of  those  children  who  are  forced  to  work,  so  that 
they  may  be  given  the  necessary  facihties  for  making 
a  wise  choice  of  vocation,  preparation  for  that  occupa- 
tion through  continuation-school  opportunity,  and  some 

^  Readings,  p.  119. 


THE   YOUNG  WORKER  1 87 

element  of  guarantee  that  they  will  find  work  when  the 
time  comes  for  them  to  change  to  the  better  employment. 

Opportunites  offered  by  Children's  Work.  —  Children 
are  subjected  to  all  the  difhculties  characteristic  of  em- 
ployment in  general,  which  we  shall  outline  in  the  next 
chapter.  But  added  to  these  are  certain  special  prob- 
lems which  we  shall  discuss  here.  If  there  be  need  for 
improving  the  conditions  of  adult  employment,  much 
more  is  it  the  duty  of  society  to  supervise  and  improve, 
or  abolish,  child  labor. 

Miss  Davis,  of  Chicago,  from  whom  we  have  quoted, 
continues : 

Reports  have  shown  that  much  of  the  work  open  to  chil- 
dren under  sixteen  is  seasonal ;  that  the  children  under  six- 
teen are  nearly  always  the  ones  who  are  laid  off;  that  the 
average  child  works  about  one  half  the  time  during  the  two 
years  between  fourteen  and  sixteen,  and  that  the  average 
wage  is  not  more  than  two  dollars  a  week.  [Less  than  four 
dollars  while  at  work.]  For  this  paltry  sum  these  children 
are  giving  up  their  right  to  schooltime  and  playtime,  their 
right  to  education  and  training  (p.  52). 

The  Wisconsin  bulletin  makes  these  comments  about 
continuation  school  girls  and  boys : 

Here  in  Wisconsin  we  have  a  group  of  about  4000  girls 
with  an  average  age  of  fifteen  years,  in  fairly  good  health,  earn- 
ing approximately  an  average  wage  of  a  little  more  than  $3.00 
per  week,  working  either  constantly  standing  or  constantly 
sitting,  for  forty-eight  hours  per  week,  and  the  majority  of 
them  live  over  a  mile  from  their  work,  to  which  they  walk. 
They  are  employed  in  candy  making,  canning  and  bottling, 


1 88  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

hand  finishing  and  sewing  for  tailors  and  knitters,  spinning, 
spooling,  and  winding,  machine  knitting,  taping,  net  weav- 
ing, turning  gloves  and  linings,  pasting  and  labeling,  cash 
and  messenger  service,  etc.,  etc.  .  .  . 

Can  we  say  that  they  are  engaged  in  a  recognized,  profit- 
able employment?  Can  we  say  that  they  have  made  a 
choice  of  occupation  ?  Can  we  say  that  they  wish  to  increase 
their  efficiency  in  their  chosen  occupation?  .  .  . 

What  shall  we  do  with  the  boys  under  sixteen  who  enroll 
in  the  Continuation  School?  Take  4000  of  these  boys  for 
consideration  in  Wisconsin.  Their  average  age  is  fifteen  years. 
They  .  .  .  earn  on  an  average  a  little  more  than  $4.00  per 
week,  and  many  walk  or  ride  long  distances  to  work.  They 
are  employed  in  making  shoes,  as  messenger  and  delivery 
boys,  office  and  errand  boys,  time  keepers,  helpers,  sorting 
and  assembling,  packing  and  wrapping,  folding  and  filing, 
tending,  and  such  simple  tasks  generally.  The  educational 
value  of  their  work  is  very  little,  if  any  at  all.  They  shift 
often  from  one  job  to  another  job,  and  quite  as  often  from 
one  occupation  to  another  occupation.  .  .  . 

It  must  be  said  that  these  boys  in  general  are  not  in  a 
recognized  profitable  employment,  that  they  have  not  already 
determined  their  aim  to  remain  in  and  become  efficient  in 
any  employment,  and  that,  therefore,  general  improvement 
instruction  may  not  wholly  miss  the  mark  in  serving  the 
group  as  a  whole  (pp.  479-480). 

The  Pennsylvania  continuation  school  law  is  reviewed 
by  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Industrial  Edu- 
cation, National  Association  of  Manufacturers,  referred 
to  (p.  189),  who  makes  the  following  statement : 

Heretofore,  many  children  under  sixteen  worked  ten  hours 
a  day,  and  fifty-eight  hours  a  week.    Hereafter,  they  can 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER  1 89 

work  only  a  total  of  fifty-one  hours  a  week,  including  the 
eight  hours  spent  in  school,  and  the  maximum  may  not 
exceed  nine  hours  in  any  one  day.  This  last  requirement 
has  caused  rather  bitter  complaint,  in  a  few  places,  where 
it  seemed  necessary  to  work  the  children  either  ten  hours 
or  not  at  all,  on  the  ground  that  some  processes  now  carried 
on  by  children  require  attention  constantly  so  long  as  the 
mill  runs  (p.  28). 

The  quotation  is  followed  by  some  plans  which  are  being 
worked  out  to  make  necessary  adjustments. 

The  Boston  Continuation  School  Bulletin,  already 
quoted,  gives  a  table  (p.  24)  from  which  it  appears  that 
both  boys  and  girls  enter  upon  employment  at  an  average 
wage  slightly  below  four  dollars.^ 

Significant  regarding  the  difl&culty  of  obtaining  work 
is  the  fact  that  19  per  cent  of  the  boys  and  39  per  cent 
of  the  girls  in  the  Boston  Continuation  School  (besides 
the  piece  workers)  obtained  promise  of  work  and  their 
employment  certificates  without  knowing  what  their 
wages  were  to  be. 

Another  source  of  dissatisfaction  in  the  occupations 
lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  frequently  no  definite  agree- 
ment as  to  the  character  of  the  work  to  be  done.  It  is 
human  nature  for  the  employer  to  picture  conditions 
in  his  establishment  as  attractively  as  possible,  and  for 
the  boy  or  girl  to  make  as  good  an  appearance  as  he  can. 

nVage  figures,  of  course,  were  taken  before  the  war  increases  of  19 16 
and  later.  Present  wages,  and  post-war  adjustments,  will  show  about 
the  same  relation  to  the  cost  of  living  as  do  these  1914-1915  figures  to 
costs  at  that  time. 


I  go  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

When  work  actually  begins,  however,  difficulties  and 
misunderstandings  are  common.  The  younger  members 
of  the  force  must  stand  ready  to  run  errands  for  every- 
body. The  writer  well  remembers  how  often  the  work 
plans  in  his  grocery-store  experience  were  interrupted, 
and  how  he  was  made  fun  of  because  he  remarked  that 
he  wanted  a  chance  to  do  his  "  regular  work." 

The  boy  or  girl  who  asks  for  employment  brings  letters 
or  gives  references  and  fills  out  an  application  blank ; 
should  not  the  employer  at  least  be  able  to  show  the 
candidate  the  specifications  of  the  job?  It  should  not 
be  difficult  to  tell  a  boy,  in  writing,  from  whom  he  is  to 
take  orders,  how  far  his  errands  will  carry  him,  what  is 
the  latest  hour  he  will  reach  home,  what  special  tasks  he  is 
likely  to  be  assigned,  just  what  he  will  have  to  do  to 
obtain  promotion,  and  what  kind  of  clothes  he  is  ex- 
pected to  wear,  any  more  than  to  tell  him  what  his 
regular  hours  are  and  how  long  he  will  be  allowed  for 
lunch. 

In  what  manner  shall  the  young  worker  be  taught 
how  to  perform  his  duties?  Here  is  a  virgin  field  for 
investigation  and  constructive  suggestion.  Many  em- 
ployers think  that  the  success  or  failure  of  a  boy  is  wholly 
an  individual  problem ;  they  do  not  make  it  a  practice 
to  work  out  a  system  of  super\'ision  and  follow-up. 
This  lack  of  thoughtful  care  and  helpful  suggestion  is 
another  cause  of  difficulty.  It  often  leads  to  sudden 
discharge  or  voluntary  leaving  without  any  previous 
intimation  that  dissatisfaction  existed. 


THE   YOUNG  WORKER 


191 


The  frequent  change  of  employment  is  another  symp- 
tom of  an  erroneous  condition  of  the  youth's  working 
experience.  Those  who  know  best  about  the  matter  es- 
timate that  the  average  boy  of  fourteen  to  sixteen  changes 
jobs  from  four  to  six  times  annually.  Boys  want  to 
work  up,  and  they  are  always  dreaming  that  a  change 
will  improve  the  conditions  under  which  they  chafe. 
Since  they  have  no  assurance  that  a  job  will  turn  out  well, 
however,  under  the  present  chaotic  state  of  employment, 
the  plan  of  trial  and  error  is  the  only  way  open  to  them. 

The  reasons  for  leaving  positions  given  by  the  Boston 
Continuation  School  children  (p.  25  of  circular)  are 
particularly  instructive : 

Reasons   for   Leaving   Positions.     Boston    Children^ 


Questions  of  personal  efficiency      .     .     .     . 
Discharged  on  account  of  conditions  of  busi- 
ness or  employment 

Left,  due  to  employment  conditions   .    .     , 

School  and  labor  laws , 

Illness 

Home  conditions , 

Other  reasons , 


Boys 

Girls 

II. 0 

4.8 

46.5 

48.6 

341 

32.8 

1.4 

3-2 

1.8 

31 

•4 

1.2 

4.8 

6.3 

Both 


8.4 


47 

33 
2 
2 


Shifting  from  job  to  job  is  a  contributing  cause  to 
unemployment  among  children,  but  by  no  means  the 

^  Figures  are  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1915;  the  beginning  of 
the  war  may  have  increased  the  number  of  discharges.  The  circular 
states  that  the  Boston  Continuation  School  seemed  to  have  a  steadying 
influence,  —  950  pupils  had  worked  in  but  one  place  since  entering  school, 
138  in  two,  and  47  in  three  or  more.  Few  of  these  children,  of  course, 
had  been  a  full  year  in  the  school. 


192  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

only  cause ;  the  work  is  unsteady  and  seasonal,  and  the 
youthful  efforts  crude  and  inefficient.  Some  employers 
make  it  a  practice  to  engage  new  hands  frequently, 
discharging  them  when  they  grow  experienced  and  wish 
more  pay.  Others  refuse  to  break  in  raw  material, 
but  take  those  trained  by  other  firms. 

The  Wisconsin  Outlines  of  Lessons,  quoted  above, 
has  this  to  say  about  conditions  in  that  state : 

The  people  who  have  dreams  that  these  permit  girls  should 
have  trade  extension  courses  exclusively,  get  a  shock  when 
they  learn  that  out  of  the  4000  girls,  500  hold  the  same  job 
less  than  one  month,  1000  hold  the  job  less  than  three  months, 
1000  less  than  one  year,  and  that  barely  25  hold  the  job  for 
two  years  (p.  479). 

Bloomfield  prints  a  table  from  an  investigation  by  the 
Henry  Street  Settlement,  showing  the  ten  jobs  held  by  a 
girl  from  her  fourteenth  to  her  sixteenth  years.^ 

A  certain  middle-sized  New  England  factory  city  is 
said  to  have  more  sixteen-  to  eighteen-year-old  boys 
walking  its  streets  or  in  its  billiard  halls  than  has  the 
city  of  Boston.  These  boys  have  been  attracted  into 
the  mills  at  fourteen,  have  found  themselves  no  better 
off  after  two  to  four  years  of  work,  have  then  quit  the 
mill,  and  are  now  without  an  occupation  and  with  prep- 
aration for  none. 

"  StumbHng  from  one  job  to  another,"  "  job  jungle," 
"  vocational  anarchy,"  and  "  job  hoboes,"  seem  to  be 
terms  of  description  which  are  justified  by  the  facts. 

^  Youth,  etc.,  p.  2. 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER  193 

It  should  be  remembered  that  we  have  not  taken  illus- 
trations from  unfavorable  places  in  this  country,  but 
from  states  so  progressive  that  continuation  schools 
have  been  organized  to  save  the  wastage. 

The  schools  cannot  escape  responsibility.  A  recent 
speaker  states  that  Boston  schools  are  training  not  more 
than  1500  students  for  industrial  careers  and  approxi- 
mately 5000  for  commercial,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in- 
dustrial opportunities  are  twice  as  numerous.  The 
school  must  recast  its  program  of  studies,  it  must  give 
better  guidance  in  the  choice  of  occupation,  and  it  must 
supervise  employment. 

What  Proposals  have  been  Made  to  Remedy  Existing 
Evils  ?  —  There  is  no  single  specific  which  will  cure  these 
evils ;  developments  in  the  past  show  the  methods  for 
the  future,  and  promise  continuous  improvement. 
What  has  so  far  been  done  to  make  conditions  for  the 
young  workers  better  has  been  the  result  of  cooperative 
intelligence,  expressed  in  the  sincere  effort  of  teachers, 
workers,  and  employers.  The  continuation  school,  pre- 
vocational  work,  and  the  part-time  plan,  as  well  as  many 
things  in  the  differentiated  and  enriched  school  pro- 
gram, have  resulted  from  this  effort.  Labor  unions, 
manufacturers'  associations,  and  philanthropic  organi- 
zations have  joined  the  forces  of  education  and  the  au- 
thority of  the  state  in  the  work  of  reform.^     So  much 

1  It  is  futile  to  ask  who  did  most  or  who  held  back.  In  human  nature 
radical  as  well  as  reactionary  tendencies  usually  He  in  the  accident  of 
economic  interest ;  this  is  to  be  reckoned  with  but  is  not  inevitable.    The 

o 


194  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

has  been  accomplished  that  there  is  little  doubt  as  to 
the  future:  ten  years  will  beyond  all  question  witness 
tremendous  strides. 

We  are  concerned  here  with  the  lines  of  activity  taken 
by  present  effort  at  reform,  —  with  the  proposals  for 
improving  the  plight  of  the  young  worker. 

Let  us  first  remind  the  reader  that  placement^  (see 
Chapter  IV)  is  not  a  satisfactory  solution,  as  is  plainly 
shown  by  both  England's  experience  and  our  ovm.. 
Indeed,  placement  of  children  under  sixteen  —  some  day 
we  may  say  eighteen  —  often  aggravates  the  evil  con- 
ditions. At  any  rate  let  us  see  if  other  proposals  will 
not  yield  better  fruit. 

Many  of  the  plans  for  improvement  have  been  touched 
upon  in  previous  chapters.  Thus  employment  super- 
vision, with  school  people  guiding  the  working  child, 
would  go  far  to  aid  the  young  worker  to  make  a  success 
of  his  present  job,  to  study  his  abilities  and  oppor- 
tunities, to  make  a  wise  choice  of  vocation,  to  take 
steps  for  definite  preparation,  and  to  find  work  in  the 
chosen  occupation  when  ready  for  it.  The  continuation 
school  can  do  much  to  save  the  young  worker  for  better 
employment.  In  the  Wisconsin  Outlines  of  Lessons 
Hicks  advocates  training  the  boys  and  girls  for  certain 
standard  occupations  while  they  are  in  the  continuation 
school : 

point  is  that  cooperation  did  the  work,  and  that  it  would  not  have  been 
done  so  well  and  so  permanently  without  that  cooperation. 

1  See  Mrs.  WooUey's  statements  on  placement,  Second  Conference, 
p.  29. 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER  I95 

The  girls,  outside  of  home-making,  have  at  least  seven 
constant  occupations  for  which  they  may  be  safely  trained, 
viz.,  servants,  dressmakers,  teachers,  saleswomen,  laundresses, 
nurses,  housekeepers,  while  with  the  boys  there  are  twenty 
or  more  constant  occupations  for  which  they  may  be  safely 
trained,  viz.,  laborers,  retail  merchants,  clerks,  draymen, 
salesmen,  carpenters,  steam  railroad  men,  machinists,  paint- 
ers, bookkeepers,  waiters,  engineers,  printers,  blacksmiths, 
masons,  barbers,  plumbers,  street  railroad  men,  shoemakers, 
bakers  (p.  481). 

Not  only  may  the  continuation  school  direct  the  atten- 
tion of  the  young  worker  to  these  occupations,  but  the 
regular  school  as  well,  in  the  lower  grades,  may  warn 
the  pupils  that  those  expecting  to  go  to  work  early 
should  choose  an  occupation  beyond  the  errand-boy 
stage,  and  should  consciously  and  persistently  work 
toward  that  occupation.  Indeed,  the  plan  we  suggested 
in  another  place,  to  have  every  pupil  study  several 
possible  occupations,  would  aid  the  young  worker  to 
get  into  a  better  place.  Moreover,  merchants  who  use 
children  under  sixteen  years  of  age  must  be  taught 
the  duty  of  providing  for  the  future  of  their  charges, 
either  by  offering  opportunity  for  adequate  promotion 
to  the  higher  places  within  their  establishments,  or  by 
their  willingness  to  allow  the  child  to  leave  their  employ 
whenever  he  can  better  himself.  The  job  should  be 
recognized  as  temporary  —  a  mere  stepping-stone  to  a 
better  employment. 

Other  plans  have  been  carried  out  or  proposed.     In 
Chicago  the  Vocation  Bureau  sent  letters  to  parents, 


196  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

embodying  the  facts  presented  above  and  inviting  the 
parents  to  conferences. 

In  most  cities  some  effort  has  been  made  by  private 
organizations  to  provide  scholarships  for  worthy  children. 
The  Second  National  Conference  on  Vocational  Guidance 
devoted  a  session  to  Scholarships.^  It  is  unthinkable 
that  aid  to  students  should  be  confined  to  colleges  and 
universities,  or  that  it  should  be  restricted  to  the  brighter 
pupils,  who  need  it  least. 

Another  proposal  is  that  a  systematic  effort  be  made  to 
open  bhnd  alleys  —  to  organize  industry  so  that  every 
job  for  the  young  worker  will  lead  to  a  better  one.  This 
plan  involves  employment  supervision  of  a  highly  de- 
veloped sort,  besides  a  recasting  of  the  plan  of  opera- 
tion of  many  establishments,  and  a  new  form  of  coopera- 
tion between  different  forms  of  businesses.  Thus  the 
errand  boy  in  a  publishing  house,  if  unqualified  by  po- 
tential ability  to  prepare  for  a  position  in  the  publishing 
business,  must  be  directed  perhaps  into  learning  a  trade 
so  that  he  may  be  equipped  to  enter  a  shop  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  or  twenty.  We  are  aware  of  the  difficulties 
involved  in  such  a  plan,  —  the  adjustments  of  wages, 
time,  schedule  of  work  in  the  establishment  of  present 
employment  and  in  the  school,  problems  of  advice  and 
guidance,  and  the  possible  changes  of  plans  during  any 
period  of  the  process.  Yet  the  principle  involved  here 
is  exactly  that  of  the  continuation  school,  and  the  con- 
tinuation school,  heralded  at  first  as  a  fad  and  an  im- 
^  See  Proceedings,  pp.  59-81. 


THE   YOUNG   WORKER  1 97 

possibility,  has  won  its  way  to  the  approval  of  all  con- 
cerned. Part-time  schooling  has  arrived :  there  re- 
mains only  the  problem  of  widening  the  opportunity  it 
offers  and  of  applying  it  to  more  workers. 

The  part-time  experiment  has  proved  successful  for 
colleges  and  high  schools ;  why  not  for  elementary  schools, 
is  the  argument,  in  case  children  find  it  necessary  to  earn 
money?  If  children  are  to  be  the  errand  runners  of 
industry  and  commerce,  why  not  have  them  work  in 
two  shifts,  one  from  eight  to  twelve  in  the  morning, 
and  the  other  from  one  to  five  in  the  afternoon?  If 
their  employment  were  well  supervised,  their  school- 
ing full  of  life  and  play,  and  their  vocational  guidance 
adequate,  there  seems  no  reason  to  suppose  that  harm 
would  result  to  themselves  or  to  society  from  their 
employment.  The  half  day  at  work  and  half  day  at 
school  would  without  doubt  be  better  than  the  plan  of 
alternate  weeks,  and  children's  work  is  so  simple  that 
not  even  the  pairing  system  ^  would  be  necessary  for 
planning  the  work  in  the  employing  estabhshments. 

Some  such  plan  as  the  above  is  mentioned  in  the 
Minneapolis  Survey  as  having  been  suggested  to  the 
committee,  but  is  not  included  in  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  Survey  Committee.^  Snedden  states  that 
the  plan  of  having  children  work  in  two  shifts  of  five 
hours  each  would  probably  be  less  disturbing  to  busi- 
ness than  the  present  continuation  school  plan.^     Thum 

*  See  Schneider,  Education,  etc.  p.  60. 

'See  Survey  Report,  pp.  21  and  29;  see  also  Alden. 

'Mass.  Board  of  Educ,  79th  Report,  p.  47. 


198  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

has  proposed  a  plan  for  part-time  in  public  employment 
and  in  high  school  study.^ 

Before  much  can  be  done  to  reeducate  the  boys  and 
girls  at  work,  public  opinion  must  be  stirred  to  the 
necessity  for  this  important  piece  of  conservation.  If 
school  people,  aided  by  progressive  employers  of  labor, 
will  continue  and  extend  the  experiments  now  under 
way,  acceptable  plans  will  shortly  be  developed.  Vol- 
unteer effort  in  all  the  methods  we  have  touched  on  — 
supervision  of  the  working  child,  prevocational  and 
vocational  training  in  the  continuation  school,  scholar- 
ships to  keep  children  in  school,  opening  the  blind 
alleys,  and  half -day  work  —  will  provide  data  for  per- 
missive legislation.  Indeed,  the  stage  of  permissive 
legislation  for  continuation  schools  already  has  been 
passed  in  some  states,  and  the  next  few  years  will  un- 
doubtedly lead  many  of  the  states  to  make  sweeping 
improvements  in  the  conditions  surrounding  boys  and 
girls  at  work. 

1  Thum,  William,  A  Forward  Step  far  the  Democracy  of  To-morrow. 
The  Twentieth  Century  Co.,  1910. 


CHAPTER  VII 

The  Problems  of  Employment 

Our  purpose  in  this  chapter  is  to  outline  the  bearing 
of  certain  unsolved  problems  of  employment  on  voca- 
tional guidance.  Obviously,  our  worker,  at  whatever 
age  he  begins  work,  and  under  whatever  circumstances, 
must  be  equipped  in  at  least  three  ways :  (i)  He  must 
be  efficient  in  his  task,  (2)  He  must  be  imbued  with  the 
desire  and  ability  to  improve  his  methods  of  work  and 
to  find  development  in  his  vocation,  and  (3)  He  must 
understand  something  of  the  economic  and  social  signifi- 
cance of  the  main  problems  of  employment.  It  is  the 
third  of  these  fields  that  we  shall  explore  in  this  chapter ; 
and  we  shall  assume  that  the  vocational  counselor  must 
know  something  of  these  problems  before  he  can  be 
effective  in  aiding  boys  and  girls  to  choose  and  prepare 
for  commercial  or  industrial  careers. 

Our  study  will  have  three  main  divisions  :  (i)  the  prob- 
lems as  seen  by  the  employer ;  (2)  the  worker's  stand- 
point; and  (3)  the  signs  of  improvement  in  employ- 
ment conditions. 

The  Problems  of  the  Employer.  Scientific  Manage- 
ment. —  The  sharpness  of  modern  competition  has  led 
to  studies  of  management,  with  the  result  that  Frederick 

199 


200  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

W.  Taylor  worked  out  a  comprehensive  system  of  shop 
operation  called  scientific  management.  The  boy  or 
girl  who  goes  into  any  large  establishment  may  find 
himself  under  this  system,  and  those  who  work  for  small 
businesses  or  go  into  business  or  manufacture  for  them- 
selves will  of  necessity  be  influenced  by  some  of  the  many 
recent  ramifications  of  the  movement.  We  shall  here 
deal  first  with  the  aims  and  methods  of  scientific  manage- 
ment and  next  with  the  more  general  question  of  per- 
sonal and  social  efficiency.  In  discussing  the  short- 
comings of  the  methods  so  far  used,  we  shall  not  forget 
the  importance  to  vocational  guidance  of  the  movement 
for  efiiciency,  and  that  the  counselor  must  have  his 
part  in  furthering  it. 

What  is  Scientific  Management  ?  ^  Taylor  states  its 
aim  and  general  method  as  follows : 

The  principal  object  of  management  should  be  to  secure 
the  maximum  prosperity  for  the  employer,  coupled  with  the 
maximum  prosperity  for  each  employee.  .  .  . 

.  .  .  the  development  of  every  branch  of  the  business  to 
its  highest  state  of  excellence,  so  that  the  prosperity  may  be 
permanent. 

.  .  .  the  development  of  each  man  to  his  state  of  maximum 
efiiciency,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  do,  generally  speaking, 
the  highest  grade  of  work  for  which  his  natural  abilities  fit 
him,  and  .  .  .  giving  him,  when  possible,  this  class  of  work 
to  do  {The  Principles  of  Scientific  Management,  p.  9). 

^  We  are  not  here  discussing  the  work  of  the  emplo>Tnent  manager 
(see  Chapter  IV).  Until  recently  the  movement  for  improving  the 
work  of  the  employment  manager  has  had  little  direct  connection  with 
"scientific  management." 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        20I 

Taylor's  plan  calls  for  detailed  instruction  cards  to 
be  issued  to  every  man,  for  helpers  or  teachers  who 
direct  and  record  the  work  of  the  men,  and  for  payment 
by  results.  It  is  a  distinct  departure  from  mere  piece- 
work, as  well  as  from  the  "  initiative  and  incentive 
plan  " ;  these  last  put  the  responsibility  for  success 
chiefly  if  not  wholly  on  the  men,  while  scientific  manage- 
ment requires  highly  specialized  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  superintendents  and  foremen  of  the  estabHshment. 

The  net  result  to  the  employer  is  that  the  improved 
method  of  running  his  establishment  will  get  more 
work  done,  with  fewer  men.  Thus,  though  the  wage 
per  man  is  higher  than  before,  the  labor  cost  per  unit 
of  product  is  reduced.  This  principle  of  lowering  labor 
cost  by  paying  higher  wages  is  perhaps  the  most  striking 
feature  of  scientific  management.^ 

Taylor  antagonized  the  laboring  men  at  the  start  by 
his  approach  from  the  side  of  profits  to  the  employers, 
by  his  naive  story  of  his  struggles  with  the  rnen  in  the  shop, 
by  the  use  of  the  stop-watch  on  the  men,  by  his  accusa- 
tions of  loafing  and  laziness,  and  by  his  crude  methods 
of  inducing  the  men  to  submit  to  his  experiments.- 
Moreover,  his  critics  were  not  slow  to  point  out  certain 
social  and  economic  impUcations  in  the  system,  which 
we  shall  discuss  presently. 

»  See  Redfield,  William  C,  The  Nrd'  Iiiduslrid  Day,  The  Centun- 
Company,  1913.  While  in  Congress,  Redfield  opposed  the  protective 
tariff  on  the  ground  that  none  would  be  needed  if  American  manufac- 
turers would  improve  their  methods. 

*See  his  conversation  v/ith  "  Schmidt  " ;  Principles,  p.  44. 

f ' 

8.-'. 


202  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

Three  other  writers  are  well  known  in  connection 
with  the  scientific  management  or  efficiency  movement : 
Gilbreth,  Gantt,  and  Emerson  (see  bibliography).  The 
first  two  worked  in  cooperation  with  Taylor,  while  Emer- 
son's plan  is  eclectic.  Hoxie,  who  has  recently  contributed 
a  study  of  the  subject,  states  as  his  judgment  that  the 
Taylor  system,  being  the  most  elaborate  and  most  widely 
followed,  may  still  be  taken  as  the  standard  plan.^ 

Scientific  management  had  a  bad  start  in  that  the  men 
who  launched  it  paid  too  little  attention  to  certain 
fundamental  social  and  economic  facts.  Things  not 
explained,  or  loosely  explained,  left  opportunity  for 
attack.  Thus  Gilbreth  admits  but  inadequately  ex- 
plains the  fact  that  with  the  output  increased  300 
per  cent  a  man's  wages  are  raised  but  25  to  100  per 
cent  (p.  89).  Brandeis  optimistically  talks,  in  the  fore- 
word to  Gilbreth's  book,  of  cooperation,  square  deal, 
men  led,  not  driven,  and  a  larger  share  for  the  working 
man,  but  refers  the  reader  to  no  proof.  Taylor  (p.  71) 
shows  output  increased  269  per  cent,  wages  increased 
64  per  cent,  and  cost  of  production  per  ton  decreased 
54  per  cent.  Again  (p.  95)  he  makes  a  great  point  of 
the  fact  that  35  girls  did  the  work  formerly  done  by  120, 
but  he  gives  little  inkling  of  the  economic  and  social 
problem  involved  in  the  cases  of  the  85  girls  discharged.^ 

1  Hoxie,  pp.  7-8. 

*  For  a  more  extended  statement  of  the  criticisms  of  the  Taylor  plan 
from  the  standpoint  of  organized  labor,  see  John  Mitchell,  The  Wage 
Earner  and  His  Problems,  Chap.  IV,  The  Wage  Earner  afid  Industrial 
Efficiency. 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        203 

It  has  remained  for  Hoxie  *  to  analyze  the  claims, 
practices,  advantages,  and  disadvantages  of  scientific 
management,  as  it  existed  in  191 5.  Professor  Hoxie 
made  his  investigations  in  connection  with  the  work  of 
the  federal  Commission  on  Industrial  Relations,  and  had 
the  advantage  of  expert  assistance  representing  both 
employers  and  labor,  frequent  consultations  with  Tay- 
lor, Gantt,  Emerson,  and  many  others,  and  of  visits  to 
establishments  operating  under  scientific  management. 
His  general  conclusions  are  that  the  claims  of  the  plan 
to  benefit  labor  are  not  proved. 

Some  of  his  conclusions  are  as  follows:  The  "time- 
study  "  men,  who  hold  the  key  to  the  system,  are  neither 
equipped  as  a  class  for  their  important  work  nor  do  they 
hold  an  influential  place  in  the  managerial  staff  (p.  57). 
These  time-study  men  set  the  tasks  for  the  workers,  and 

...  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  greater  knowledge 
creates  also  greater  opportunities  for  the  unscrupulous  and 
that  a  method,  which  in  benevolent  and  intelligent  hands 
makes  better  dealing  possible,  may  be  woefully  abused  by 
the  ignorant  and  unscrupulous,  and  observation  proves  that 
time  study  for  task  setting  is  no  exception  to  the  rule  (p.  53). 

Mr.  Emerson  would  not  claim  with  Taylor  that 
scientific  management  always  and  of  necessity  deals 
out    exact   justice    to    the   worker    (p.    13).     Scientific 

^  Note  also  Thompson,  Clarence  B.  This  symposium  on  scientific 
management  is  chiefly  descriptive,  and  planned  after  the  method  of  the 
advocate  rather  than  the  judge.  Labor's  point  of  view  is  not  explicitly 
given;  neither  are  economic  and  social  considerations  elaborated.  For 
studies  of  the  effect  of  speeding-up  work,  see  Goldmark. 


204  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

managers  express  a  preference  for  the  one-job  man, 
so  that  narrow  specialization  is  the  result  (p.  38).  Taylor 
advocated  a  complete  reorganization  of  the  establish- 
ment, so  that  increased  returns  would  be  unlikely  for 
about  two  years.  Hoxie  finds,  however,  that  scientfic 
managers  are  early  pressed  for  a  financial  showing, 
and  thus  plans  are  inadequately  carried  out  (p.  29). 

Coming  more  closely  now  to  the  problem  of  vocational 
guidance,  Professor  Hoxie  finds,  in  the  shops  under 
scientific  management,  no  systematic  grappling  vnth. 
the  problem  of  selecting  and  hiring  men.  He  found 
that  many  heads  of  labor  departments  were  young  and 
inexperienced,  that  they  were  unacquainted  with  the 
best  practices,  and  that  best  results  were  obtained  in 
some  shops  not  under  scientific  management  (p.  ;^t,). 

Let  us  quote  his  statements  about  the  adaptation  of 
the  work  to  the  worker : 

Nowhere  did  the  writer  discover  any  scientific  or  adequate 
methods  employed  for  adapting  the  worker  to  the  task,  that 
is,  for  "setting  each  man  to  the  highest  task  for  which  his 
physical  and  intellectual  capacity  fits  him."  .  .  .  Experi- 
mental tests  may  have  been  made  by  scientific  management 
experts,  psychological  and  physiological,  for  determining 
special  industrial  qualifications  and  aptitudes  of  workers, 
but  none  of  them  was  discovered  in  the  shops.  Indeed,  the 
impression  of  the  writer  was  very  strong  that  the  average 
manager  in  a  scientific  management  shop  is  not  only  quite 
indifferent  to,  but  profoundly  ignorant  of,  the  broader  and 
deeper  aspects  of  the  problem  of  vocational  selection  and 
adaptation  (p.  35). 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        205 

It  has  afforded  little  opportunity  ...  for  the  discovery 
and  development  of  special  aptitudes  among  the  masses 

(P-  93)- 

Considering  next  the  question  of  industrial  peace 
and  rights  of  the  workers,  we  find  these  conclusions : 

.  .  .  the  whole  scheme  of  scientific  management,  especially 
the  gathering  up  and  systematization  of  the  knowledge 
formerly  in  the  possession  of  the  workmen,  tends  enormously 
to  add  to  the  strength  of  capitalism  (p.  134 ;  see  also  p.  131).^ 

In  its  extension  it  is  certain  that  scientific  management 
is  a  constant  menace  to  industrial  peace  (p.  135). 

[Evidence]  in  no  way  justifies  the  assumption  that  scien« 
tific  management  offers  any  effective  guarantee  against 
overspeeding  and  exhaustion  of  workers  (p.  91). 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  scientific  management  tends, 
in  practice,  to  weaken  the  power  to  the  individual  worker 
as  against  the  employer  (p.  104). 

.  .  .  the  democratic  possibilities  of  scientific  manage- 
ment, barring  the  presence  of  unionism,  would  seem  to  be 
scant  (p.  107). 

Discussing  the  question  of  fundamental  harmony  of 
interests  between  capital  and  labor,  claimed  by  Taylor, 
Hoxie  finds  that  some  managers  agree  with  the  labor 
unions  in  finding  a  conflict  of  interests  between  the  two. 
Others,  however,  lay  claim  to  a  belief  in  industrial  democ- 
racy, but  "  the  democracy  of  this  class  of  managers  usu- 
ally turned  out  to  be  on  analysis  a  species  of  benevolent 
despotism  often  very  worthy  indeed,  but  far  removed  from 
the  Taylor  conception  in  its  scientific  purity  "  (p.  102). 

*  Cf.  Schneider,  Education,  etc.,  p.  7. 


206  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

On  pages  137-139  of  Hoxie's  book  the  report  as  given 
to  the  Commission  on  Industrial  Relations  is  presented. 
It  is  signed  by  all  three  investigators.  They  find  that 
scientific  management  "is  to  date  the  latest  word 
in  the  sheer  mechanics  of  production  and  inherently  in 
line  with  the  march  of  events."  They  state,  however, 
that  the  social  problem  created  by  scientific  manage- 
ment does  not  lie  in  this  field,  but  rather  in  the  direct 
and  indirect  effects  upon  labor.  Thus,  a  conflict  ap- 
parently exists  between  efficient  methods  of  doing  things 
and  human  rights,  both  of  which  are  good,  and  both 
of  which  must  survive.  The  Commission  is  advised 
to  conduct  experiments  in  the  coordination  and  har- 
monizing of  these  forces.^ 

So  much  for  the  problems  of  scientific  management. 
It  is  apparent  that  the  boys  and  girls  who  go  into  oc- 
cupations to  which  scientific  management  is  applicable 
must  be  taught  neither  to  glorify  mere  efficiency  nor  to 
try  to  turn  back  the  hands  of  the  clock  as  did  the  laborers 
who  broke  machinery  during  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century.  They  must  understand  that  not  even  the  most 
complex  mechanical  and  psychological  adjustments  can 
be  substituted  for  common  justice  and  provision  for 
the  good  citizenship  of  the  masses,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  cry  "  every  man  should  have  what  he 
earns  "  means  nothing  unless  it  takes  into  consideration 

1  We  are  not  here  concerned  with  the  vigorous  discussion  on  the  valid- 
ity of  Hoxie's  method  and  conclusions.  His  book  certainly  points  out 
unsolved  problems  which  vitally  concern  the  worker. 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        207 

the  legitimate  rights  of  the  management.  The  student 
of  vocational  guidance  must  follow  the  ramifications  of 
this  problem,  and  must  contribute  to  its  solution. 

What  Efficiency  Offers  Society. — The  vocational  coun- 
selor must  approve  of  and  cooperate  with  the  movements 
for  increasing  the  efficiency  of  individuals  and  establish-  / 
ments;  he  must  remember,  however,  that  social  safe-' 
guards  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  There  is  no  denying 
the  fact,  for  example,  that  in  some  men's  minds  effi- 
ciency is  thought  to  be  the  cure  for  all  sorts  of  business 
and  personal  failures,  whereas  a  mere  sharpening  of 
the  "  race  for  success,"  without  consideration  for  the 
successes  of  the  many,  might  lead  to  social  disaster 
rather  than  betterment.  The  advertisements  of  the 
business  magazines  must  not  be  allowed  to  lead  our 
boys  and  girls  to  think  only  of  their  own  personal  efii- 
ciency.  The  school's  task  is  to  teach  group  efl&ciency 
as  well  —  the  pupils  must  be  shown  how  the  applica- 
tion of  social  efficiency  can  save  the  "  waste  of  un- 
guided  ability,"  ^  improve  methods  of  distribution-  and 
save  society  the  enormous  wastes  in  various  forms  of 
preventable  friction. 

The  responsibility  for  these  new  forms  of  efficiency 
is  being  widely  recognized.  Efforts  to  extend  educa- 
tional opportunity,  to  provide  industrial  education,  to 
estabUsh  settlements,  to  bring  about  cooperative  school- 
ing,   to    seek    the    aid    of    advisory    committees,    and 

1  See  Woods  in  Readings,  p.  19;  and  Ward. 
*  Sec  Roman,  N.  E.  A.,  p.  11 73. 


2o8  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

to  supplement  in  various  ways  the  work  of  the 
schools  —  all  show  that  the  social  aim  is  not  being  lost 
sight  of. 

Personal  efficiency  must  be  cultivated  by  the  schools, 
and  the  child  must  be  taught  that  his  own  efforts  to  im- 
prove his  abilities  are  indispensable  to  his  success. 
He  must  also  be  shown,  however,  that  lasting  and  satis- 
factory rewards  come  only  to  those  who  use  their  abili- 
ties in  performing  useful  service.  Efficiency,  in  other 
words,  must  be  used  for  producing  commodities  useful 
to  the  social  whole,  and  not  for  mere  personal  aggran- 
dizement in  a  struggle  to  rise  above  competitors.  These 
considerations  must  be  understood  by  the  counselor, 
and  must  form  part  of  the  educational  and  vocational 
guidance  of  the  child. 

The  Employer's  Problem  in  the  "  Turnover "  of 
Employees.  —  Investigations  show  that  employers  are 
forced  to  put  up  with  the  aimless  migration  of  workers 
from  one  establishment  to  another.  This  requires  con- 
stant effort  spent  in  teaching  duties  to  new  men.  Recent 
computations  by  Alexander  (see  bibliography)  of  the 
General  Electric  Company  set  the  costs  for  training  men 
as  follows :  highly  skilled  worker,  $48 ;  next  grade, 
$38-50 ;  unskilled  worker,  $8.50 ;  clerk,  $29 ;  piece- 
worker, $65.50.  In  a  study  of  twelve  factories,  he  found 
that  at  the  beginning  of  191 2  the  number  of  employees 
was  38,668;  at  the  end,  46,796,  and  that  during  the 
year  there  were  44,365  persons  hired,  an  apparently 
unnecessary  engagement   of   22,225   workers,   after  all 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        2 Op 

allowances  are  made,  who  were  hired  and  "  broken  in  " 
at  a  total  cost  of  $774,139. 

Investigations  show  that  establishments  engage  each 
year  a  number  of  new  workers  which  is  from  twenty 
to  three  hundred  per  cent  of  their  regular  force,  and  that 
the  cost  of  replacing  a  worker  is  ordinarily  from  thirty 
to  one  hundred  dollars.^  Mr.  A.  Lincoln  Filene  states 
that  it  is  the  experience  of  his  business  "  that  the  per- 
centage of  college  men  who  fail  to  stick  to  the  first 
job  that  they  try  on  leaving  college  is  as  large,  if  not 
larger,  than  the  boy  who  hasn't  been  through  college."  ^ 

The  vocational  counselor,  then,  must  cope  with  these 
facts:  that  there  is  a  well-established  habit  among 
workers  to  change  from  job  to  job,  of  their  own  accord ; 
that  this  causes  a  very  large  waste  of  time  and  money ; 
that  part  of  these  changes  are  educative,  in  that  the 
trial  and  success  method  is  the  only  one  open  to  most 
individuals ;  that  both  school  and  employer  must  study 
the  problem,  with  the  hope  of  providing  for  experimen- 
tation in  the  school,  specifying  in  advance  the  require- 
ments of  the  job,  and  supervising  the  entrance  into  the 
occupation.^ 

Other  Problems  of  the  Employer.  —  Complexities 
hedge  the  employer  about,  in  the  modern  systems  of 
business  and  industry,  so  that  it  is  not  surprising  that 
mistakes  are  made.     The  professional  attitude  is  only 

^  See  Gruenberg ;  Bloomfield,  Nation  s  Business. 

*  Nat.  Conference,  p.  174. 

'  See  Willits  and  Hopkins,  Philadelphia  report,  pp.  86-90,  162-168. 

P 


2IO  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

gradually  being  developed ;  men  in  business  have  here- 
tofore had  no  ready  way  to  find  out  about  the  failures 
and  successes  of  plans  tried  by  their  rivals. 

One  of  the  mooted  points  is  in  regard  to  health  ad- 
vice and  help.  The  Clothcraft  Shops  in  Cleveland  have 
frequent  medical  examinations  of  their  workers,^  and 
treatment  is  furnished  both  in  the  shops  and  in  the  homes. 
William  Filene's  Sons  Company  of  Boston  have  equipped 
a  hospital  in  the  store,  and  offer  but  do  not  compel 
medical  examination,  advice,  and  treatment.  Many 
establishments  handling  foodstuffs  safeguard  cleanliness 
by  means  of  physical  examinations.  Many  firms  give 
examinations  such  as  eyesight  tests  upon  entering  em- 
ployment. Variety  of  practice  prevails.  Workers  do  not 
always  welcome  examinations,  for  they  fear  that  they  are 
aimed  at  discovering  defects  which  will  cost  them  their 
positions  and  perhaps  make  it  difficult  to  secure  other  em- 
ployment. It  would  seem  that  a  solution  to  the  prob- 
lem of  health  guidance  might  be  found  in  a  simple 
test,  when  obviously  needed,  on  entering  employment, 
and  frequent  inspection  to  safeguard  the  workers  and 
the  product.  Then  medical  examination,  advice,  and 
treatment  might  be  left  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the 
workers,  through  mutual  benefit  associations  or  labor 
unions. 

Health  examination  and  advice  relating  to  occupations 
prior  to  employment,  may  be  given  by  the  school  au- 
thorities, with  the  chief  purpose  of  keeping  children 

1  See  Feiss, 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        211 

out  of  places  which  might  injure  them.^  Note  what  has 
been  said  (pp.  165-168)  on  the  dangers  of  guidance 
through  over-attention  to  physical  characteristics.  Such 
advice  would  certainly  have  erred  in  the  cases  of  Steven- 
son, Beethoven,  and  Dalton. 

The  movement  for  "  Safety  First  "  has  interested 
employers,  especially  in  view  of  recent  compensation 
laws.  The  best  progress  has  been  achieved  when  the 
workers  themselves  have  had  a  part  in  the  movement. 
The  California  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  in  a  recent 
report  (p.  97)  gives  the  plan  of  a  lumber  company, 
which  formed  a  committee  of  five,  three  of  whom  were 
employees,  to  confer  about  safety  and  to  recommend 
precautions  against  accidents. 

Another  pressing  problem  is  that  concerned  with  social 
work,  formerly  called  "  welfare  work."  When  large 
bodies  of  workers  are  in  one  estabHshment  there  is  an 
obvious  necessity  to  provide  for  lunchrooms,  rest  rooms, 
opportunity  for  noon-time  recreation,  and  for  other 
facilities  for  unifying  the  force.  Feiss  holds  that  the 
spirit  of  the  worker,  shown  in  his  loyalty  to  the  manage- 
ment, is  a  much  more  important  requirement  than  ini- 
tial skill. 

How  shall  these  activities  be  instituted  and  main- 
tained? William  Filene's  Sons  Company  puts  them 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  employees,  while  the  Larkin 
Company  directs  them  through  the  employment  man- 
ager.    Both    companies    have    extensive    facihties    for 

'  See  Bloomfield,  Readings,  pp.  704-711 ;  Yoiilh,  etc.,  pp.  148-157. 


212  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

social  activities,  and  in  the  case  of  each  the  company 
pays  the  expense. 

The  issues  involved  in  social  work  are  complex.  On 
the  one  hand,  some  establishments  have  a  shifting  force 
largely  composed  of  unskilled  workers,  who  live  a  sordid 
life  in  their  homes,  have  little  initiative  for  coopera- 
tion, and  work  and  act  like  automata  in  the  shop.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  anything  is  done  to  brighten  their 
lives  in  the  recesses  of  shop  work,  they  complain  that 
they  would  "  rather  have  the  money  in  wages."  The 
lot  of  the  director  of  social  work  is  often  a  hard  one, 
dependent  as  he  is  on  the  good  graces  both  of  the  man- 
agement and  of  the  workers.^ 

Against  these  discouraging  experiences,  however,  there 
are  being  set  many  hopeful  experiments  in  cooperative 
endeavor.  If  the  cigar  makers  in  New  York  City 
shops  will  unite  to  hire  somebody  to  read  to  them  while 
they  work,  it  becomes  likely  that  factory  workers  will 
find  it  advisable  to  raise  no  complaint  against  innova- 
tions which  make  the  hours  of  labor  happier  ones.  It 
is  true  that  the  managers  who  have  had  success  with 
social  work  find  that  it  means  increased  returns  through 
better  work  on  the  part  of  the  employees.  Then  the 
owners  need  only  acknowledge  this  fact,  and  raise  wages 
correspondingly,  as  many  of  them  have  done.  The 
workers  do  not  really  object  to  social  work  as  such,  but 
they  wish  opportunity  to  work  out  their  own  self-direc- 

^  See  Valentine's  statement  from  the  side  of  the  management,  Davis, 
Field  of  Social  Service,  p.  133. 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        213 

tion  in  things  which  have  to  do  with  leisure  time.  This 
desire  is  commendable,  and  should  be  encouraged. 

Another  problem  of  the  employer  —  and  this  the 
student  of  vocational  guidance  must  especially  consider 
—  is  the  ever-recurring  question  of  legislation  affecting 
his  business.  These  are  the  days  of  many  laws,  and 
no  merchant  can  be  sure,  from  one  session  of  the  legis- 
lature to  another,  that  his  business  will  not  be  put  in 
jeopardy.  The  congress  fixes  tariffs  and  interstate 
commerce  laws,  and  the  city  council  taxes  and  licenses 
him.  Hours  of  labor,  minimum  wages,  safety  laws, 
fire  escapes,  air  shafts,  elevator  rules,  windows  and 
lighting,  building  laws,  and  a  hundred  other  subjects 
may  be  altered  by  state  statute  which  subject  him  to 
fine  or  imprisonment.  Armies  of  inspectors  visit  him, 
besides  many  kindly  social  workers  who  will  shortly  press 
the  legislators  for  more  reforms,  when  the  present  ones 
are  enforced.  In  helping  to  rationalize  industrial  and 
commercial  legislation  the  vocational-guidance  student 
will  render  great  service  to  society.  If  employment 
supervision  becomes  an  actuality,  the  vocation  bureau 
will  be  better  equipped  to  perform  this  service  of  guid- 
ing legislation  than  perhaps  any  other  agency.  More 
even  than  the  legislator  the  counselor  will  represent 
the  social  interests  of  the  public,  besides  which  he  will 
have  intimate  and  authoritative  contact  with  employer, 
worker,  factory,  home,  and  school. 

So  much  for  the  problems  of  the  employer.  Our 
theses  are  two :  that  the  student  of  vocational  guidance 


214  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

must  understand  and  contribute  to  the  solution  of  these 
problems,  and,  second,  that  he  must  see  that  the  future 
employers  and  employees  understand  them  too,  and 
that  they  go  out  of  the  school  ready  to  improve  upon 
the  attempted  solutions  made  by  the  present  genera- 
tion. 

The  Problems  of  the  Employed.  —  Many  of  the  prob- 
lems of  the  workers  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  em- 
ployers, though  the  viewpoint  is  the  opposite.  In  dis- 
cussing scientific  management  above,  we  touched  on 
the  question  of  some  present  conflicting  interests  be- 
tween the  two  parties,  and  on  the  necessity  for  recon- 
ciling efficient  management  with  human  rights.  It 
should  be  noted  at  this  point,  however,  that  the  com- 
plaint of  labor  is  not  always  against  machinery,  or  effi- 
ciency as  such,  but  rather  at  the  unfair  advantages  which 
these  institutions  give  to  management.  Put  in  its  most 
intelHgent  form,  it  is  not  a  piotest  against  any  set  of 
men  or  any  particular  way  of  doing  business,  but  rather 
an  objection  to  the  continuance  of  conditions  which 
may  be  corrected  with  benefit  to  all  concerned. 

The  Need  for  Guidance  in  Obtaining  Work.  —  The 
growth  of  the  factory  system  has  ahnost  eluninated  the 
industrial  laborer  who  works  for  himself  and  employs 
no  help.  We  have  been  unable  to  find  data  on  the  sub- 
ject, but  it  is  very  likely  true  that  the  small  shop  keepers, 
the  small  farmers,  and  certain  professional  people  would 
represent  the  greater  part  of  this  remnant  of  an  individ- 
uaUstic  system  of  occupations.     Moreover,  since  these 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        215 

occupations  require  capital  or  highly-specialized  train- 
ing, we  may  say,  broadly  speaking,  that  it  is  impossible 
nowadays  for  the  average  man  to  work  without  first 
seeking  the  opportunity. 

Without  guidance,  the  natural  results  of  this  condi- 
tion would  be,  for  the  unskilled,  at  least,  unemployment, 
poverty,  exploitation,  low  wages,  lack  of  adaptation 
to  the  work  obtained,  and  loss  of  self-respect.  To  seek 
for  work  the  laborer  goes  to  an  employment  agency,  or 
answers  a  ''  want  ad."  The  California  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  reports  923  complaints  against  em- 
ployment agencies  for  misrepresentation,  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1 914,  632  of  which  were  decided  for  the 
petitioners  and  over  $2300  ordered  returned  (pp.  lo-ii). 
The  Manly  report^  for  the  Commission  on  Industrial 
Relations  states : 

.  A  study  of  newspaper  want  advertisements  made  a  few 
years  ago  revealed  that  when  times  are  good  one  fourth  or 
more  are  "fake  ads,"  while  in  hard  tunes  more  than  one 
half  are  in  this  class  (p.  171). 

The  existence  of  these  conditions  shows  the  need  of 
guidance,  both  for  adults  and  for  children. 

Unemployment.  —  Bound  up  with  the  necessity  for 
seeking  work  is  the  problem  of  unemployment.  Dearie 
shows  how  wastefully  trades  are  recruited  with  workers, 
there  being  always  a  list  of  hangers-on  for  every  large 

*  This  report  has  been  labeled  unfair  —  biased  toward  the  side  of 
labor.  Nevertheless,  it  remains  a  challenge  to  all  those  who  refuse  to 
be  satisfied  that  the  status  quo  does  not  need  improvement. 


2l6  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

establishment,  waiting  to  be  employed.^  The  Manly 
report  for  the  Commission  on  Industrial  Relations 
devotes  twenty-two  pages  to  the  subject  of  unemploy- 
ment, every  word  of  which  is  worthy  of  quotation 
here,  had  we  the  space  available.  The  student  of  voca- 
tional guidance  must  use  this  report  as  one  of  his  text- 
books. The  studies  on  which  these  findings  are  based 
were  conducted  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  justify 
the  summary  statement  that : 

A  careful  analysis  of  all  available  statistics  shows  that  in 
our  great  basic  industries  the  workers  are  unemployed  for 
an  average  of  at  least  one  fifth  of  the  year,  and  that  at  all 
times  during  any  normal  year  there  is  an  army  of  men,  who 
can  be  numbered  only  by  hundreds  of  thousands,  who  are 
unable  to  find  work  or  who  have  so  far  degenerated  that  they 
cannot  or  will  not  work.  Can  any  nation  boast  of  industrial 
efficiency  when  the  workers,  the  source  of  her  productive 
wealth,  are  employed  to  so  small  a  fraction  of  their  productive 
capacity  ?  ^ 

These  conclusions  are  borne  out  by  a  recent  study  of 
employment  in  Philadelphia,  conducted  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Department  of  PubHc  Works  by  Joseph  H. 
Willits,  Instructor  in  Industry,  Warton  School  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  Textile  mills  and  garment 
factories  operate  from  twenty  to  eighty  per  cent  of  full 

*  Bloomfield,  Readings,  p.  34. 

2  P.  34;  see  also  pp.  161,  162,  23,  34,  163,  164,  170-183.  Even 
should  the  war  solve  the  unemployment  problem  for  years  to  come,  yet, 
if  the  causes  of  unemployment  are  untouched,  the  evil  will  ultimately 
reappear. 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        21 7 

time.^  Published  charts  show  great  fluctuation  in 
number  of  workers  employed  (pp.  24,  39,  41,  44,  45). 
The  effect  of  unemployment  on  poverty,  family  Ufe, 
and  crime  is  discussed  on  pages  49-57.  Particularly 
interesting  is  the  diary  of  a  man's  experience  in  one  day's 
hunt  for  work,  with  the  accompanying  map  (pp.  115- 
116). 

To  the  student  of  vocational  guidance,  one  of  the 
most  interesting  conclusions  of  this  Philadelphia  report 
is  that  unemployment  forces  men  to  take  up  work  for 
which  they  are  not  fitted :  to  take  anything  that  offers, 
with  the  common  result  that  the  worker  is  never  able 
to  return  to  his  own  trade. 

During  the  winter  of  1913-1914  Arthur  Evans  Wood 
of  Reed  College  conducted  an  intensive  study  of  the 
unemployed  in  Portland,  Oregon.  His  findings  are 
similar  to  the  data  already  quoted.     He  concludes : 

These  facts  constitute  a  grave  social  problem,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  devolves  upon  the  state  and  city  and  national 
authorities,  inasmuch  as  the  welfare  of  the  state  is  dependent 
upon  the  welfare  of  its  industrial  workers  (p.  32). 

Various  remedies  for  unemployment  have  been  pro- 
posed and  partially  tried.  The  Dcnnison  IManufactur- 
ing  Company  of  Framingham  made  a  systematic  effort 
to  eliminate  the  seasonal  rush,  by  seeking  early  orders 
for  Christmas  trade,  by  making  containers  and  other 
cheaper  products  far  in  advance  of  need,  and  by  devel- 
oping a  trade  for  and  manufacturing  new  goods  used 

1  \\'illits,  The  Unemployed  in  Philadelphia,  p.  5. 


2l8  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE    MOVEMENT 

throughout  the  dull  seasons.  Such  companies  recognize 
the  value  of  a  steady  force  of  workers,  and  see  that  a 
highly  seasonal  business  may  become  a  menace  rather 
than  a  benefit  to  the  community. 

Insurance  against  unemployment  has  been  proposed, 
but  the  contributory  feature  seems  impracticable  in 
view  of  the  attitude  of  labor  and  the  shifting  of  men 
from  place  to  place.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the  states 
may  confidently  be  expected  to  experiment  with  such 
legislation,  based  on  European  experience. 

Another  remedy  which  seems  eminently  desirable 
is  the  adjustment  of  public  work  so  that  it  will  become 
greatest  at  times  of  most  unemplo}Tnent.  The  argu- 
ment behind  this  plan  is  that  legislation  now  protects 
the  individual  in  his  Hfe,  health,  safety  from  fire  and 
accident,  property,  morals,  and  education ;  but  offers 
very  inadequate  protection  against  poverty.  It  is 
fully  as  necessary  for  society  to  protect  itself  against 
the  results  of  unemployment,  as  brought  about  by  idle- 
ness, discouragement,  and  crime.  If,  therefore,  the 
city,  state,  and  nation  should  offer  any  person  out  of 
employment  opportunity  to  work,  at  a  figure  which  need 
not  compete  with  present  and  well-established  businesses 
and  industries,  no  one  would  have  the  present  excuses 
for  idleness,  begging,  charity,  wife-desertion,  burglary 
and  other  evils  against  society. 

The  most  common  proposal  for  the  cure  of  unem- 
ployment is  one  that  has  been  tried  in  many  American 
cities  and  states  —  the  public  employment  bureau.     It 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        219 

is  now  recognized  that  interstate  or  national  federation 
is  necessary  for  the  success  of  public  employment  bureaus, 
and  even  then  the  problem  will  hardly  be  solved  without 
concurrent  application  of  some  of  the  other  remedies 
noted  above.  But  the  widespread  establishment  of 
state  and  municipal  employment  agencies,  with  a  central 
bureau  issuing  bulletins  such  as  emanate  from  the 
Weather  Bureau,  would  go  far  toward  relieving  the 
present  pressure  on  the  unskilled. 

What  has  the  vocational  counselor  to  do  with  the 
unemployment  problem  ?  He  must  first  of  all  see  that 
it  cannot  completely  be  solved  inside  the  schoolroom  by 
equipping  each  prospective  worker  with  skill  in  business 
or  industry.  "  The  causes  of  unemployment  are  not 
merely  individual,  —  physical  incapacity,  lack  of  train- 
ing, inefficiency,  and  unwillingness  to  work,  —  they  are 
usually  general  and  quite  beyond  the  control  of  the 
individual  workman."  ^  On  this  account  the  counselor 
must  help  in  the  effort  to  solve  the  problem  by  collec- 
tive action,  and  he  must  warn  the  future  workers  con- 
cerning the  conditions  which  they  will  meet. 

Wages  are  often  Inadequate.  —  Another  difficulty, 
from  the  viewpoint  of  the  employed,  lies  in  the  question 
of  wages.  A  few  years  ago  Professor  Nearing  found  that 
the  average  man  in  the  United  States  received  less  than 
$600  yearly,  and  the  female  worker  less  than  $400. 
Even  then  there  is  difficulty ;  the  California  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  reports  that  in  three  years'  time 

^  Coman,  p.  667. 


220  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

12,802  complaints  were  registered  with  the  bureau 
against  employers  for  non-payment  of  wages.  "  The 
Bureau  succeeded  in  collecting  8409  of  the  claims 
amounting  to  $171,808.21  "  (p.  15). 

The  "Worker's  Right  to  Satisfaction  and  Development 
in  his  Work.  —  Lack  of  individual  development  and 
satisfaction  in  the  occupation,  even  when  the  worker  is 
steadily  employed,  is  the  consequence  of  certain  charac- 
teristics of  industry  and  commerce  already  noted. 

The  need  for  supervision  and  the  demand  that  should 
be  made  for  the  job  to  give  an  account  of  itself  is  force- 
fully stated  by  Bloomfield  in  Youth,  School,  and  Voca- 
tion, p.  26.  The  worker  has  the  right  to  ask  what  the 
job  will  do  for  him  —  where  he  will  be  after  five  or  ten 
years  of  work. 

Every  manufacturer,  as  well  as  every  student  of  vo- 
cational guidance,  should  read  Dean  Schneider's  '^Laws 
of  the  Two  Kinds  of  Work,''  on  pages  lo-ii  of  Edicca- 
tion  for  Industrial  Workers.  It  is  a  graphic  description 
of  the  development  of  a  modern  factory  town,  and  clearly 
shows  what  must  be  alleviated,  cured,  or  prevented. 

What  the  cure  may  be  no  one  knows,  but  that  some  of 
the  many  plans  being  tried  or  being  proposed  will  re- 
lieve conditions  no  one  can  doubt.  And  there  can  be 
no  possibility  of  anything  but  hopefulness  when  one 
considers  the  tremendous  progress  that  twenty  years 
has  brought. 

Labor  Organizations.  —  Few  students  of  the  subject 
openly  advocate  the  abandonment  of  labor  organiza- 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        221 

tions,  but  many  have  grave  doubts  and  important 
qualifications  regarding  them.  Thus,  while  Hoxie  (p. 
138)  and  Manly  (p.  183)  claim  that  in  no  other  way 
than  by  the  development  of  labor  union  strength  and 
collective  bargaining  can  the  problems  of  industry  and 
commerce  be  met,  some  of  the  members  of  the  Com- 
mission on  Industrial  Relations  direct  their  attention 
solely  to  the  mistakes  of  these  organizations  (pp.  414- 
442).  Regardless  of  such  terms  as  "  autocracy  of 
wealth,"  "  class  struggle,"  and  "  mob  rule,"  however, 
the  fact  is  patent  that  both  sides  to  the  controversy 
have  sinned  against  society,  and  the  further  fact  that 
somehow  they  must  be  made  to  serve  society.  The 
better  statements  and  better  policies  of  either,  rather 
than  the  worst,  must  be  accepted  at  the  fullest  value 
possible,  and  their  good  intentions  capitalized.^  The 
vocational  counselor,  knowing  the  needs  and  the  prob- 
lems of  each,  can  materialy  assist  in  the  work. 

The  Value  of  Constructive  Discontent  in  Solving 
Labor  Problems,  —  The  spread  of  education  is  sure  to 
be  accompanied  by  certain  forms  of  discontent  among 
the  workers,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the  vocational 
counselor  to  see  that  this  discontent  becomes  construc- 

^  John  Mitchell,  in  a  recent  New  York  City  speech,  declared  these 
points  to  constitute  the  program  of  labor :  a  minimum  wage  conformable 
to  American  standards;  the  eight-hour  day;  abolition  of  child  labor; 
safety  in  work  and  compensation  for  injuries ;  better  housing  conditions ; 
preservation  of  the  guarantees  of  trial  by  jury,  free  speech,  and  a  free 
press.  The  student  of  vocational  guidance  can  surely  go  with  the  unions 
thus  far,  reserving  the  right  to  part  company  on  other  points,  if  necessary-. 


222  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

live  and  helpful  to  society.  Whether  or  not  we  out- 
line these  problems  to  the  children  in  school,  the  brighter 
among  them  will  later  read  and  study  on  their  own  ac- 
count, and  will  become  intelligent  in  the  solutions  at- 
tempted if  our  vocational  guidance  is  directed  to  that  end. 

Constructive  discontent  must  see  that  "  democracy 
means  something  more  than  the  right  to  vote.  De- 
mocracy means  the  abolition  of  special  privilege  and  the 
securing  of  equal  opportunity  for  all."  Without  eco- 
nomic and  social  knowledge  of  a  protective  sort  the 
individual  worker  would  be  as  helpless  as  a  farmer 
without  means  of  transportation,  and  the  school  must 
give  the  pupil  this  knowledge  and  aid  him  to  secure  the 
rightful  protection.  We  may  claim  not  that  the  world 
owes  each  man  a  living,  but  that  the  world  should 
yield  each  worker  a  foothold  — •  an  opportunity  to  work 
and  to  advance.^ 

We  cannot  here  discuss  the  problem  of  how  much  or 
how  little  the  children  in  our  schools  should  be  led  to 
consider  these  things.  That  is  a  matter  of  many  factors 
particular  to  each  time  and  situation.  But  that  the 
child  should  be  equipped  to  grapple  wdth  them  is  not 
to  be  doubted,  if  we  are  educating  him  for  a  democracy.^ 

1  Veblen  shows  that,  even  with  dynasties  destroyed  and  a  league  to 
enforce  peace  established,  autocracy  of  wealth  will  breed  world  war 
{The  Nature  of  Peace,  Chapter  VII). 

2  The  narrow  viewpoint  of  those  arguing  for  a  narrow  form  of  educa- 
tion is  shown  by  Shorey's  assumption  that  democracy  is  expressed  by 
"equality  before  the  law"  {The  Assault  on  Humanism,  p.  36).  If  this 
attitude  be  "humanism,"  obviously  a  scholar  and  an  idiot  could  be 
equal  before  the  law,  and  thereby  "  democracy  "  would  be  achieved. 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        223 

May  we  not  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  every  child 
should  be  broadly  educated  for  an  "  energizing  "  occu- 
pation, and  then  if  he  cannot  find  that  kind  of  employ- 
ment we  may  at  least  be  sure  that  an  intelligent  and 
constructive  discontent  will  be  at  work  to  better  con- 
ditions about  him.  In  reference  to  wrongs  existing  in 
the  occupations,  the  future  worker  must  be  taught 
that  mere  submission  means  individual  atrophy  and 
social  stagnation,  and  that  mere  strife  is  no  more  effi- 
cacious than  would  be  running  against  a  wall ;  but  that 
intelligent  and  constructive  adjustment  and  coopera- 
tion is  best. 

We  should  derive  our  optimism  by  considering  the 
blessings  already  gained.  A  talk  with  one  who  has 
lived  under  long-passed  conditions  of  work  may  well 
be  made  an  exercise  of  the  class  for  the  study  of  occu- 
pations. Thus,  some  women  still  live  who  worked  in 
textile  mills  from  4  :  45  in  the  morning  till  7  :  30  at  night. 
Such  progress  as  we  have  already  made  assures  us  of 
the  future. 

The  Many  Signs  of  Improvement.  —  But  our  hope  for 
the  future  is  not  based  entirely  on  contrast  with  the 
past.  There  are  some  sharp  contrasts  in  the  present  — 
some  experiments  being  conducted,  and  succeeding, 
which  are  pointing  the  way  to  the  solution  of  vexing 
questions.  Many  of  these  have  been  touched  upon 
already:  the  reduction  of  the  labor  turnover;  the 
opportunity  to  transfer  from  one  department  of  an 
establishment   to  another;    the   "blue-printing"   of  a 


224  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

job ;  the  employment  supervision  exercised  by  certain 
schools  and  placement  agencies ;  the  Birmingham  volun- 
tary committees;  improved  legislation  in  regard  to 
child  labor;  the  decision  of  certain  firms  to  employ 
no  child  under  sixteen ;  the  estabhshment  of  new  kinds 
of  schools  and  courses;  the  promotion  of  recreation 
both  for  children  and  for  adults. 

In  addition  to  these  signs  of  improvement  we  cannot 
fail  to  note  the  new  spirit  of  cooperation  possessing  the 
employer  and  the  school.  The  four  recent  industrial 
surveys  —  those  in  Richmond,  MirmeapoHs,  Cleveland, 
and  Indiana  —  were  made  possible  only  by  such  joint 
action.  The  development  of  this  spirit  marks  a  new  era 
in  vocational  guidance,  if  not  in  the  whole  employment 
problem.  The  Minneapolis  Survey  ^  was  able  to  work 
out  a  series  of  trade  agreements  to  include  the  school, 
the  industry,  and  the  worker.  Such  agreements  bid  fair 
to  bring  back  an  apprentice  system,  revised  to  fit  modern 
conditions  and  very  greatly  improved  (let  us  hope) 
because  the  school  has  a  place  in  them. 

Another  hopeful  indication  is  the  spread  of  the  idea 
of  arbitration  for  labor  differences,  and  the  judicial 
settlement  of  claims  and  disputes.  The  California 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  (pp.  15-48)  deals  with  the 
laws  and  their  operation  in  that  state,  and  the  Manly 
report  for  the  Commission  of  Industrial  Relations  (pp. 
133-139  and  191-202)  outlines  what  may  be  expected 
shortly. 

1  Chap.  XXIII,  and  App.  C. 


THE  PROBLEMS  OF  EMPLOYMENT        22$ 

Cooperation  in  industry,  profit  sharing,  and  all  move- 
ments in  the  direction  of  industrial  democracy  are  of 
special  significance  to  the  student  of  vocational  guidance. 
Methods  of  approach  are  rapidly  being  worked  out,  and 
evidence  to  prove  the  wisdom  of  the  experiments  is 
growing  in  volume. 

The  cooperation  being  practiced  in  the  store  of  William 
Filene's  Sons  Company  in  Boston  is  typical  of  what  may 
soon  come  to  pass  in  many  other  establishments.  The 
extent  of  the  plan,  the  success  of  its  operation,  and  the 
spirit  of  the  clubrooms,  remind  one  strongly  of  the 
student-government  activities  of  the  large  Los  Angeles 
High  Schools.  It  gives  renewed  hope  for  the  ordering 
of  work  so  that  educative  values  may  be  conserved. 

It  is  more  than  likely  that  some  such  cooperative 
schemes,  developed  as  fast  as  solid  experience  and  the 
growing  intelligence  of  the  workers  will  allow,  may 
point  the  way  to  a  form  of  industrialism  appropriate  to 
a  democracy. 

The  Lessons  for  Vocational  Guidance.  —  During  the 
progress  of  this  chapter  we  have  repeatedly  indicated  the 
duty  of  the  counselor  to  study  the  problems  of  employ- 
ment, to  cooperate  with  both  employer  and  worker  in 
the  solution  of  these  problems,  to  represent  the  educa- 
tional forces  of  society  in  the  effort  to  conserve  youth 
and  hopefulness,  and  to  equip  the  future  worker  for 
effective  grappling  with  these  complex  problems. 

It  should  now  be  apparent  that  the  student  of  voca- 
tional guidance  should  take  an  active  interest  in  legis- 

Q 


226  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

lation  which  concerns  school  and  labor,  and  should  aid 
in  the  effort  for  better  laws.  It  should  further  be  clear 
that  school  pupils  must  be  taught  the  principles  and 
practice  of  cooperation,  for  only  by  joint  action  can 
certain  difficulties  be  overcome.  Schools  must  provide 
a  measure  of  self-government,  with  the  direction  of 
student  activities  more  or  less  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils. 
By  such  methods  young  people  will  learn  the  true  mean- 
ings of  both  obedience  and  leadership,  and  we  may 
confidently  expect  that  the  workers  themselves  will 
join  in  bringing  to  fruition  the  "  hope  that  the  near 
future  will  see  our  schools  unite  with  the  best  employers 
to  further,  during  its  decisive  years,  youth's  promise  of 
service  and  growth."  ^ 

^  Bloomfield,  Youth,  etc.,  p.  26. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

A  Program  for  Vocational  Guidance 

Our  study  so  far  has  included  (i)  A  statement  of  the 
problems  of  vocational  guidance  ;  (2)  A  review  of  present 
attempts  to  provide  guidance  in  schools  and  in  occupa- 
tions ;  (3)*A  study  of  educational  as  related  to  vocational 
guidance ;  (4)  An  examination  of  the  work  of  the  coun- 
selor; (5)  A  criticism  of  some  questionable  methods  in 
guidance ;  (6)  A  study  of  the  young  worker  in  industry 
and  commerce;  and  (7)  A  survey  of  the  problems  of 
employment.  It  will  be  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to 
summarize  the  conclusions  reached  in  the  foregoing 
studies,  and  therewith  to  outline  a  proposed  program  for 
effective  vocational  guidance. 

A  Working  Definition  of  Vocational  Guidance.  —  In  the 
first  chapter  we  noted  the  propriety  of  proceeding  on  the 
assumption  that  the  ordinary  meanings  of  the  two  words 
"vocational"  and  "guidance"  should  hold  valid.  In 
spite  of  disagreements  as  to  the  exact  meaning  of  the  word 
"vocational,"  differences  in  applying  the  guidance,  and  at- 
tempts of  classifiers  to  mark  off  the  divisions  of  the  subject,^ 

^  See  the  definition  in  the  Massachusetts  law  and  Professor  Moore's 
Criticism  in  Whal  is  Education,  p.  164.  Notice  also  the  ordinary  use 
of  the  term  on  page  316  of  the  same  book. 

A  recent  writer  separates  our  subject  into  (i)  Educational  guidance; 

227 


228  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

the  common,  dictionary  definitions  give  us  the  most 
light.  We  may  therefore  propose  the  following  as  a 
workable  statement : 

Vocational  guidance  is  a  systematic  effort,  based  on 
knowledge  of  the  occupations  and  on  acquaintance  with  and 
study  of  the  individual,  to  inform,  advise,  or  cooperate  ^\dth 
him  in  choosing,  preparing  for,  entering  upon,  or  making 
progress  in  his  occupation. 

With  this  definition  in  mind,  we  shall  divide  our 
study  of  an  appropriate  program  for  vocational  guidance 
into  the  following  topics,  which  will  form  the  subject 
matter  of  this  chapter :  (i)  The  types  of  schools  needed ; 
(2)  The  function  of  the  school  people ;  (3)  Cooperative 
effort  for  vocational  guidance ;  (4)  The  improvement  of 
the  conditions  of  employment ;  (5)  Methods  of  guidance ; 
(6)  Training  in  vocational  guidance;  (7)  Some  appro- 
priate next  steps. 

The  Types  of  Schools  Needed  for  Vocational  Gmdance. 
—  In  order  that  vocational  guidance  may  find  its  most 
efficient  expression,  the  schools  must  be  organized  in  a 
manner  conformable  with  the  best  educational  theory 
and  practice.     It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  the 

(2)  Vocational  guidance;  (3)  Avocational  guidance  (see  Jacobs).  For 
convenient  treatment,  there  is  some  justification  for  this  classification, 
but  not  for  logical  division.  As  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  I,  the  first  two 
of  these  classes  greatly  overlap.  "Avocational "  is  hardly  the  word. 
It  is  questionable  to  call  duties  of  citizenship  avocational;  this  is 
Moore's  objection.  Again,  Jesse  Davis  shows  that  moral  and  civic 
duties  do  not  "call  away' '  from  the  vocation,  but  aid  it  and  are  aided  by 
it.  Finally,  the  word  "  avocational "  has  indefinite  and  contradictory 
meanings,  as  a  reference  to  the  dictionary  will  show. 


A    PROGRAM  FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  229 

education  of  the  children  should  be  under  state  control, 
with  authority  delegated  to  local  boards  and  commit- 
tees except  in  those  matters  where  centralization  seems 
advisable,  as  for  example,  certification  of  teachers ;  appor- 
tionment of  the  school  tax ;  special  aid  for  rural,  agricul- 
tural, and  vocational  education ;  and  minimum  require- 
ments in  school  term,  buildings,  salaries,  and  programs 
of  studies.  State  boards  as  well  as  local  boards  or 
committees  may  call  to  their  assistance  groups  of  men 
from  all  walks  of  life  to  act  as  advisory  committees. 

Turning  to  the  actual  schools,  we  have  seen  that  the 
movement  for  vocational  guidance  is  interested  in  the 
progress  of  the  child  from  his  earliest  years.  The  value 
of  early  play  in  the  home  has  been  noted.  The  kinder- 
garten gives  opportunity  for  a  social  contact  that  should 
form  a  good  foundation  for  later  training,  aids  the 
children  to  develop  the  dramatic  sense,  and  gives  them, 
through  the  songs,  games,  sand-box,  and  other  exercises, 
the  beginnings  of  their  acquaintance  with  occupations. 
However  rudimentary  these  gains  are,  from  a  vocational 
point  of  view,  the  child  with  the  kindergarten  training 
should  be  better  off  than  one  without  it.  Kindergartens 
should  therefore  form  a  part  of  the  school  system  which 
aims  to  provide  vocational  guidance,  and  their  methods 
should  largely  be  followed  in  the  earlier  grades  of  the 
elementary  school.^ 

The  elementary  school  should  equip  its  pupils  with  an 
interest  in  the  basic  fields  of  knowledge  and  ex-pcrience. 
*  See  Bartlett,  Vocational  Guidance  in  Pomona  Cily  Scitools. 


230  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

We  have  called  attention  in  Chapter  III  to  the  vocational 
values  in  the  various  studies,  and  in  a  later  portion  of  the 
present  chapter  we  shall  discuss  the  plan  for  a  class  in 
the  study  of  occupations,  the  life-career  class,  for  each 
grade  beginning  with  the  fourth. 

Class  work  is  adapted  to  the  great  majority  of  children, 
but  there  must  be  provision  for  special  classes  and 
individual  instruction  paralleling  the  entire  school 
system.  Such  classes  should  handle  all  those  children 
who  need  the  personal  attention  available  for  special 
groups.  For  the  normal  children,  it  may  be  safe  to  have 
class  work  with  uniform  curricula  up  to  and  including 
the  sixth  grade.  Here  the  elementary  school  course 
may  properly  end. 

The  intermediate  or  junior  high  school  should  include  , 
the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades.    Here  differentia- ' 
tion  of  a  positive  sort  should  begin.     Here,  too,  provision 
for  vocational  guidance  must  be  clear  and  adequate. 
Three  courses  are  often  provided :  the  General  Course, 
the  Industrial  Course,  and  the  Business  or  Commercial  , 
Course,  and  each  entering  pupil  must  make  his  choice. 
Here  is  important  opportunity  to  prevent  wrong  choice, 
and  the  counselor,  in  the  person  of  the  principal,  vice- 
principal,  or  special  advisor,  should  interview  each  child 
far  enough  in  advance  of  his  entrance  to  make  the  choice 
as  deliberate  as  possible. 

But  children  at  the  age  of  thirteen  are  too  young  for 
making  such  momentous  decisions.  It  may  prove  to  be 
a  better  policy,  therefore,  to  turn  the  intermediate  school 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE 


231 


into  a  prevocational  school,  with  a  great  variety  of 
offerings,  and  with  each  child  put  into  contact  with 
many  different  kinds  of  activities.  Consider,  for 
example,  the  following  list: 


Proposed  Activities  for  Children  12  to  16  Years  of  Age 
intermedlvte  or  junior  high  school 

Note.  —  It  is  proposed  that  all  the  studies  of  Group  I  be  required, 
and  that  each  pupil  be  required,  during  the  three  years'  course,  to  take 
at  least  two  courses  from  each  of  the  other  groups.  The  remainder  of 
the  work  should  be  selected,  under  educational  and  vocational  guidance. 


Group  I 
Life-career  class 
Commercial  and  Industrial 

geography 
Elementary  economics  and 

sociology 
Community  civics 
Group  II 

English  literature 

Composition 

Oral  English 

Work  on  school  paper 

Dramatics 

Debating 

Group  III 
History 

General  science 
Modern  language 
Shop  arithmetic 
Household  arithmetic 
Algebra  and  geometry 


Group  IV 
Music 
Glee  clubs 
Choruses 
Orchestras 
Bands 

Group  V 
Typewriting 
School  clerical  work 
Commercial  arithmetic 
Penmanship 
Bookkeeping 

Management     of     lunch- 
room, bookstore,  etc. 
Library  work 

Group  VI 

Freehand  drawing 
Mechanical  drawing 

Group  VII 
Physical  training 
Athletic  games 


232 


THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 


Group  VIII 

Student  self-government 
Social  meetings 
Reception  committee 
Auditorium  meetings 
Literary  societies 
Entertainments 
Summer  camps 
Group  IX 

{a)  Janitor  work 

Fire  department 

Sanitation  committee 
ih)  Cooking 

Sewing 

Millinery 

Laundry 
(c)  Gardening 

Agriculture 


Care  of  animals 
Dairying 

Competition    in    corn 
and  other  clubs 
id)  Woodshop 
Machine  shop 
Sheet-metal  shop 
Brick,     plaster,     and 

stone 
Cement  work 
Elementary  electricity 
Painting  and  finishing 
Leather  and  cobbling 
Jewelry 
Bookbinding 
Printing 
Textiles 
Modeling 


It  is  conceivable  that  a  modern  school  system  might 
offer  most  of  these  activities  in  the  intermediate  grades 
(or  at  least  in  the  high  school),  and  that  a  wide  choice 
should  be  open  to  every  child.  Some  subjects  may  be 
given  in  alternate  years,  and  in  a  large  city  types  of 
schools  may  offer  different  programs.  Transportation 
facilities  should  be  arranged  for,  however,  so  that  no 
child  will  necessarily  be  limited  to  the  work  of  the  school 
nearest  him.^  In  planning  his  curriculum  for  the  three 
years    of    the    intermediate    school,    each    child    might 

^  The  custom  of  attending  two  schools  at  once  seems  not  to  be  common 
among  pupils.  Hence  it  may  be  best  to  have  every  school  maintain 
a  large  variety  of  activities,  even  if  each  study  is  carried  on  in  miniature. 


A    PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  233 

be  required  to  take  certain  prescribed  studies,  to  take 
at  least  two  subjects  in  every  group,  and  to  choose  one 
group  for  comparative  specialization.  (Cf.  the  "  con- 
centration and  distribution  plan"  of  Harvard  College.) 
For  illustration,  a  given  student  might  take  all  of  the 
studies  of  Group  I  and  the  first  three  of  Group  II  as 
required  subjects ;  might  elect  general  science  and  music 
in  Groups  III  and  IV,  typewriting  and  school  clerical 
work  in  V,  freehand  and  mechanical  drawing  in  VI,  and 
athletic  games  and  participation  in  auditorium  meetings 
in  Groups  VII  and  VIII,  and  might  specialize  in  Group 
IX,  taking  agriculture,  care  of  animals,  dairying,  com- 
petition in  a  dairy  contest,  and  cement  work.  The 
amount  of  each  subject,  and  the  order  of  studies,  would 
still  remain  to  be  determined. 

The  justification  for  this  plan  of  choice  and  trial  is 
that  the  intermediate  age  is  an  experimental  and  a  find- 
ing period,  and  a  smattering  of  several  things  is  better 
for  its  purposes  than  thoroughness  in  a  few.^  Versa- 
tility is  important  here,  at  least  as  a  first  step  toward 
discovery  of  powers  and  tastes.  We  do  not  mean 
that  a  child  should  be  forced  into  versatility  against 
his  positive  desire  to  specialize :  the  rules  for  required 

The  general  shop  is  a  perfectly  feasible  plan  for  small  schools  of  inter- 
mediate grade.  A  prevocational  school  is  limited  to  an  unwarranted 
degree  if  it  has  but  one  or  two  kinds  of  manual  work.  Suburban  schools 
for  urban  children  may  in  time  offer  a  solution;  here  the  schools  of 
different  types  could  be  grouped  within  convenient  reach  of  each 
other. 

1  In  schools  of  Rochester,  Arlington,  and  other  cities  brief  trial 
courses  of  six  weeks  or  less  have  been  provided. 


234  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

and  elected  studies  should  be  subject  to  change  to  suit 
individual  needs. 

A  lesson  in  method  may  be  learned  from  the  project 
idea  of  the  Boy  Scouts  organization.  Credits  are  given 
for  definite  tasks  performed.  To  apply  this  plan  to  our 
list  above,  we  should  require  our  pupil,  rather  than  to 
pass  in  certain  studies,  to  give  a  talk  before  the  school, 
to  write  a  paper  about  the  factories  of  his  city,  to  type- 
write that  paper,  to  make  the  pattern  for  a  simple  cast- 
ing, to  make  the  casting,  to  bind  a  book,  to  raise  a  sheep, 
to  wash  ten  school  windows  under  the  direction  of  the 
janitor. 

The  plan  here  proposed  is  not  so  simple  in  its  opera- 
tion as  is  the  Los  Angeles  Intermediate  school  plan,  in 
which  the  entering  pupil  chooses  one  of  the  five  courses 
and  proceeds  through  that  course  to  graduation,  with  the 
presumption  against  the  facility  of  his  transfer  to  another 
course.  The  latter  plan  assumes  that  a  wise  choice  can 
be  made  at  the  thirteenth  year :  there  seems,  however, 
to  be  little  evidence  to  justify  the  assumption.  The 
plan  here  proposed  allows  the  pupil  to  make  a  choice  of 
the  activities  which  seem  now  to  attract  him,  but  insists 
that  under  usual  circumstances  he  shall  experiment 
with  many  other  activities  as  well,  so  that  at  graduation 
he  would  have  come  into  contact  with  a  large  number  of 
the  occupational  experiences  of  Hfe. 

If  some  of  the  children  must  earn  money  during  the 
intermediate  age,  they  should  have  half-time  schooling 
as  proposed  in  a  former  chapter  (p.  197). 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  235 

With  the  entrance  into  high  school  we  shall  find  that 
many  of  our  pupils  feel  ready  to  specialize  for  definite 
callings,  while  others  need  a  continuation  of  the  broad 
experimentation  described  above.  If  we  may  judge  by 
some  observations  already  made,  however,  even  those 
who  have  decided  on  their  occupations  are  subject  to 
change  of  mind.  Our  school  courses,  therefore,  must 
be  strongly  interlocked,  so  that  boys  and  girls  may  make 
needed  transfers  without  loss  of  time. 

Vocational  guidance  is  very  much  concerned  with  the 
question  whether  high  schools  should  be  general  in 
character  or  whether  they  should  each  center  their  atten- 
tion on  preparing  for  a  restricted  set  of  occupations.  If 
efficiency  in  the  occupation  were  the  only  consideration, 
the  matter  would  not  be  a  difficult  one  to  settle.  But 
there  is  the  fact  that  pupils  change  their  minds,  and  the 
further  consideration  that  undemocratic  ideals  may  be 
fostered  by  breaking  up  the  high-school  pupils  into  the 
"  classical  "  group  and  the  "  technical  "  group.  Further 
experiment  will  be  needed  before  a  sufficiently  clear 
answer  can  be  given  to  the  question.  On  the  one  hand, 
present  experience  seems  to  show  specialization  in  the 
aim  of  the  high  school  makes  for  efficiency  in  instruction 
and  economy  of  expense ;  on  the  other  hand  the  high 
school  of  varied  program  furnishes  an  opportunity  for 
broad  experimentation,  and  makes  allowances  for 
changes  in  the  choice  of  occupation.  It  may  be  found 
that  the  specialized  high  school  is  best  for  those  who  have 
definitely  chosen  their  occupations,  while  the  general 


236  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

school  is  best  for  those  who  have  not.  If  this  be  the 
fact  it  would  seem  that  both  types  of  school  are  needed. 
The  vocational  counselor  must  contribute  to  the  solution 
of  these  questions.^ 

We  may  be  sure,  in  any  case,  that  our  high  schools 
should  provide  broad  curricula  for  those  students  who 
have  not  yet  decided  on  their  life-careers  and  for  those 
who  have  chosen  professions  and  plan  to  go  to  college, 
and  should  provide  as  well  for  those  who  wish  specific 
vocational  education  and  for  those  who  are  forced  to 
work.  Part-time  work  may  finally  be  found  the  most 
practicable  plan  for  all  kinds  of  vocational  education.^ 

The  relation  of  these  questions  to  vocational  guidance 
must  be  clear.  Long  before  the  pupil  enters  high  school, 
he  should  have  the  benefit  of  counsel  in  regard  to  the 
different  paths  open  to  him.  During  the  entire  three 
or  four  years  of  his  course  he  should  have  cooperation 
in  making  the  important  decisions  which  affect  his 
future  so  profoundly. 

What  college  education  should  be,  in  view  of  vocational 
guidance,  is  rather  too  big  a  question  for  treatment  here. 
We  may  protest  in  passing,  however,  against  the  assump- 
tion that  the  college  course  should  be  merely  "  Hberal  " 
and  thereby  indefinite,  and  that  all  specialization  of  a 
vocational  sort  should  be  deferred  till  the  professional 

^  One  student  of  vocational  guidance  has  recently  shown  that  the 
pupils  in  his  high  school  —  a  commercial  high  school  —  are  not  by  any 
means  sure  that  they  will  enter  the  occupations  for  which  this  vocational 
school  prepares.     (E.  A.  Post,  in  an  unpublished  study.) 

^  See  Schneider,  Education  for,  etc.,  and  Stimson. 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL  GUmANCE  237 

school.  This  policy  takes  no  account  of  the  many  stu- 
dents who  never  go  on  to  the  professional  school  or  who 
drop  out  before  completing  the  college  course.  These 
students  often  leave  college  unfitted  for  vocational  choice 
or  for  adaptation  to  the  exigencies  of  actual  work. 

All  high  schools  should  have  evening  sessions,  and 
should  maintain  vacation  schools  as  well.  Further,  the 
time  may  soon  come  when  summer  camps  may  be  held 
under  school  auspices,  and  when  trips  of  pupils  may  be 
a  part  of  the  school's  program.^  We  may  hope,  too, 
that  a  parent-teacher  association  be  a  part  of  each  school's 
plan,  and  that  the  teachers  will  cooperate  with  many 
social,  civic,  political,  professional,  commercial,  and 
industrial  organizations.  Each  school,  too,  should  have 
a  growing  and  changing  museum,  or  at  least  should 
habitually  cooperate  with  such  institutions  in  the  vicinity. 

So  much  for  the  types  of  schools  needed  for  vocational 
guidance.  We  shall  next  consider  the  part  played  in 
guidance  by  various  school  officers. 

The  Function  of  the  School  People,  in  Vocational 
Guidance.  —  The  teacher  of  whatever  subject  should 
be  on  the  alert  to  find  and  use  the  vocational  values  in 
every  lesson.  His  chief  task  is  to  act  as  educational 
guide,  and  he  must  make  the  educational  guidance  func- 
tion as  vocational  guidance  whenever  this  seems  desir- 
able. To  do  this  he  will  need  to  widen  the  scope  of 
classroom    activity.     Play,    competition,    and    various 

^  Camps  and  trips  are  common  in  private  schools  and  bo}^'  clubs; 
fees  may  be  charged  to  help  defray  expenses. 


238  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

forms  of  self-direction,  group  effort  ^  and  individual 
instruction  should  be  utilized  whenever  possible.  De- 
bates in  the  history  lessons,  contests  in  arithmetic, 
dramatics  in  the  language  class,  excursions  for  geog- 
raphy, original  work  in  music,  and  competitions  in 
drawing  —  all  these  show  what  may  be  done  to  open 
the  way  for  discovery  of  talents.  Johnson  shows  the 
need  for  competition  in  games  ^ ;  much  of  the  same 
spirit,  if  carefully  supervised,  can  be  profitably  developed 
in  other  studies. 

How  far  in  vocational  guidance  can  the  regular  teachers 
go  ?  No  doubt  all  of  them  can  make  their  studies  count 
for  guidance,  and  can  systematically  study  their  pupils. 
Many  of  them  can  offer  occasional  counsel,  and  a  few  can 
do  efficient  work  based  on  knowledge  of  occupational 
opportunities.  All  of  the  teachers  should  be  prepared 
to  furnish  significant  information  about  each  child  to 
the  counselors  who  specialize  in  the  work. 

In  many  if  not  most  schools  for  several  years  the 
teacher  will  be  the  only  counselor  the  child  has.  Hence 
the  need  for  our  normal  schools  and  colleges  to  give  the 
prospective  teachers  the  viewpoint  of  vocational  guid- 
ance. As  we  remarked  in  a  former  place,  the  child's 
teacher  is  most  favorably  situated  to  guide  him;  it 
would  be  desirable  if  every  teacher  could  be  a  counselor. 

If  the  school  has  one  or  more  teachers  who  are  allowed 
part  of  their  time  for  vocational  guidance,  these  teachers 

*  Scott,  Social  Education. 

^  Education  through  Recreation,  pp.  29-32. 


A  PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  239 

may  begin  their  work,  as  we  have  suggested  in  Chapter 
IV,  by  investigating  the  causes  of  elimination  from  school, 
and  by  following  the  children's  careers  as  they  enter  upon 
work.  These  investigations  will  lead  the  teacher  into 
contact  with  the  occupations,  and  will  thus  give  him 
valuable  information  to  use  in  advising  pupils.  Other 
work  which  may  profitably  be  undertaken  is  the  employ- 
ment supervision  of  the  graduates  of  the  school.  This 
of  course  should  be  done  in  cooperation  with  the  em- 
ployers. If  some  of  the  graduates  are  in  business  for 
themselves,  they  can  be  greatly  assisted  by  friendly, 
intelligent  advice,  given  by  the  counselor  himself,  or  by 
men  and  women  of  experience  who  will  cooperate  with 
the  schools. 

The  part-time  counselor  may  also  make  home  visits, 
and  may  collect  composite  information  about  the  child 
and  his  progress.  He  should  be  prepared  to  counsel 
children  as  to  courses  and  change  of  curricula,  and  to 
furnish  aid  to  any  teacher  in  connection  with  vocational 
guidance.  He  should  collect  literature  on  vocations, 
and  should  have  charge  of  the  life-career  classes  of  the 
school. 

The  school  principal,  if  he  cannot  have  a  part-time 
counselor  in  his  staff,  should  do  all  or  most  of  this  work 
himself,  or  should  apportion  it  among  his  teachers.  He 
should  see  that  cumulative  record  cards  are  kept,  so 
that  the  successes  of  the  child  may  be  continued  as  he 
advances  in  the  school.  These  records  may  be  fre- 
quently renewed  or  revised,  and  should  register  changes 


240  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

of  viewpoint  on  the  part  of  the  child,  his  school  marks, 
the  preferences  of  his  parents,  and  his  interests  outside 
the  school  studies.  Except  in  the  case  of  grave  necessity, 
nothing  derogatory  should  be  recorded. 

The  principal's  leadership  among  the  pupils  largely 
determines  the  spirit  of  the  school.  The  lessons  of 
cooperation  learned  through  the  varied  manifestations 
of  a  good  school  spirit  are  so  valuable  that  no  princi- 
pal should  fail  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity. 
Personal  contact  with  the  pupils,  and  an  active  sym- 
pathy with  their  problems  in  studies,  athletics,  and 
student  activities,  will  go  far  toward  preparing  the 
ground  for  effective  vocational  guidance. 

Leadership  of  the  teachers  is  not  less  in  importance. 
If  the  principal  can  somehow  make  the  teachers  feel 
that  they  are  really  helping  in  determining  the  policies 
of  the  school,  this  cannot  fail  to  make  them  consider 
more  carefully  the  aims  of  the  school  and  the  means  of 
realizing  these  aims. 

We  come  now  to  the  question  of  an  expert  counselor 
and  a  central  office.  It  is  possible  that  the  early  writers 
on  vocational  guidance  gave  the  impression  that  one's 
becoming  "  expert "  gave  him  an  occult  power  that 
others  could  not  understand  or  approach.  Between  the 
teacher  who  is  unconscious  of  vocational  guidance,  and 
a  person  of  experience  in  counseling  there  is  no  gulf  fixed ; 
the  fact  is  merely  that  one  teacher  has  studied  and  prac- 
ticed more  than  the  other  in  the  particular  occupation 
of  vocational  guidance.     Such  a  person  may  well  begin 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  24 1 

as  we  have  explained  above ;  his  ability  will  develop  as 
his  experience  grows. 

How  should  the  bureau  be  organized?  In  the  first 
place  it  cannot  be  organized  dc  novo;  it  must  grow  out  of 
investigations  and  guidance  activities  in  the  different 
schools.^  When  these  investigations  have  become  so 
extensive  that  a  clearing  house  is  needed,  then  the 
bureau  becomes  a  necessity.  Until  that  time,  school 
money  had  best  be  spent  in  allowing  teachers  in  the 
individual  schools  time  to  do  investigating  and  coun- 
seling. 

What  relation  should  the  bureau  bear  to  other  depart- 
ments of  the  school  system?  It  may  sometimes  be 
necessary  to  have  as  its  general  director  a  head  of 
department  who  has  charge  also  of  compulsory  attend- 
ance, work  certificates,  placement,  industrial  work,  and 
night  schools;  but  none  of  these  activities  should  be 
set  above  vocational  guidance.  Consolidation  of 
departments  may  frequently  be  necessary,  but  absorp- 
tion and  amalgamation  should  be  prevented.  The  work 
of  vocational  guidance  will  most  likely  have  vital  con- 
nection with  all  the  departments  of  the  system,  but  it 
must  be  free  to  formulate  its  policies  in  the  light  of  its 
own  independent  needs  and  investigations.  As'  Miss 
Davis  and  Miss  Lathrop  have  pointed  out,  guidance 
forced  to  serve  present  economic  needs  of  children,  with 
no    outlook    beyond,    fails    of    its    opportunity.^    The 

^  See  Bloomfield,  Youth,  etc.,  p.  51- 
*  Nat.  V.  G.  Assn.,  1914,  pp.  49-52. 


242  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

bureau  may  profitably  begin  its  work  by  interviewing 
those  who  apply  to  the  school  ofi5cers  for  work  permits. 
It  should  be  recognized  that  these  studies  are  pathologi- 
cal, however,  for  as  Hanus  says,  "  vocational  guid- 
ance cannot  be  safely  deferred  until  the  pupil  is  on  the 
threshold  of  the  world's  work."  ^ 

We  shall  not  go  into  detail  here  on  the  many  activities 
which  a  central  bureau  may  profitably  undertake.  In 
brief  it  may  collect,  publish,  and  disseminate  vocational 
information ;  aid  in  equipping  teachers  for  the  work  of 
counseling;  collect  funds  for  scholarships  for  needy 
children ;  enlist  the  aid  of  college  students  in  making 
investigations,  business  men  for  part-time  work,  advice, 
and  cooperation,  and  civic,  labor,  commercial,  industrial, 
and  legislative  organizations  in  improving  conditions  of 
labor ;  aid  teachers  in  the  solution  of  difficult  problems ; 
and  stand  ready  to  offer  help  in  whatever  direction  will 
count  for  the  better  guidance  of  pupil  or  worker.  The 
bureau  should  have  a  select  library  on  vocational 
guidance  and  vocations,  and  should  cooperate  with  public 
libraries.  It  should  hold  frequent  conferences,  at  which 
are  brought  together  the  various  interests  concerned 
with  work  and  guidance.  It  should  strive  unceasingly 
for  opening  new  avenues  of  child-help,  through  all  such 
plans  as  public  employment  bureaus,  volunteer  com- 
mittees to  give  advice  to  children,  and  school  officers 
in  all  parts  of  the  city  ready  to  be  consulted  by  any 
worker,    young    or    old.     Finally,    its    chief    concerns 

*  Bloomfield,  Readings,  p.  94. 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  243 

should  be  two :  aiding  in  the  work  of  improving  the  school 
program,  and  helping  to  bring  about  a  system  of  employ- 
ment supervision  which  will  extend  the  care  of  the 
school  over  all  children. 

The  work  of  the  bureau  may  be  subdivided,  some 
assistants  doing  actual  counsehng,  and  others  making 
studies  of  occupations. 

The  superintendent  of  schools  should  first  of  all  chart 
his  educational  opportunities,  or,  better,  join  forces  with 
civic  organizations  which  will  do  the  work  in  such  a  way 
as  to  include  all  educational  institutions.^  He  may 
actively  assist  the  work  in  vocational  guidance  by  lend- 
ing his  support  to  the  meetings,  by  attending  conferences 
with  employers  and  others,  by  showing  pupils  his  interest 
in  their  life-careers,  and  by  taking  active  part  in  the 
civic,  commercial,  industrial,  and  professional  life  of  the 
community.  In  most  cases,  too,  for  the  present,  at  least, 
he  will  need  to  impress  on  taxpayers,  voters,  and  board 
members  the  necessity  for  using  school  money  to  stop  the 
waste  of  unguided  ability. 

The  state  officers  of  education  can  act  with  the  state 
and  federal  officers  who  collect  information  about  occupa- 
tions (see  p.  135),  and  can  aid  in  the  distribution  of 
printed  matter.  The  state  officers  of  education  may 
aid  in  rousing  dormant  energy  to  be  used  for  coun- 
seling. They  may  help  in  the  inspection  of  industries, 
so  that  the  welfare  of  the  workers  will  be  better 
conserved. 

'  See  Harper. 


244  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

The  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington  should  con- 
tinue and  extend  the  expressions  of  its  recent  strong 
interest  in  vocational  guidance.  The  bureau  aids  in 
issuing  the  Vocational-Guidance  Bulletin;  has  published 
The  School  and  the  Start  in  Life,  and  the  proceedings  of 
the  third  national  conference ;  and  has  under  way  at 
least  two  other  studies  for  early  pubUcation.  There 
are  needed  many  more  studies  of  occupations,  a  manual 
for  students'  use  in  life-career  classes,  a  classified  index 
to  the  literature  on  the  subject,  and  a  comprehensive 
survey  of  the  present  attempts  to  provide  vocational 
guidance.  The  Bureau  at  Washington  is  in  a  particularly 
good  position  to  become  a  national  and  international 
clearing  house  of  information  on  aims,  plans,  methods, 
and  results  in  vocational  guidance. 

We  have  so  far  briefly  surveyed  the  function  of  the 
school  people  in  vocational  guidance.  We  hold  that  the 
schools  should  lead  in  the  work,  and  in  most  cases  direct 
whatever  cooperative  effort  shall  be  called  forth.  Guid- 
ance must  not  be  considered  an  affair  of  fees,  exploitation, 
advertising,  or  promotion  of  any  sort,  except  educational. 
Those  engaged  in  the  work  will  have  need  of  the  highest 
ideals  in  education,  both  to  keep  their  own  activities  in 
the  correct  channels,  and  to  free  the  vocational  guidance 
movement  from  tendencies  which  would  seriously  handi- 
cap its  usefulness. 

Cooperative  Effort  on  the  Part  of  Those  Interested  in 
Guidance.  —  We  have  constantly  taken  the  position 
that   no   strides  forward   can   be   taken  in   the   voca- 


A    PROGRAM  FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  245 

tional-guidance  movement  without  the  joint  action 
of  the  forces  interested.  Cooperation  will  be  re- 
quired for  almost  all  the  processes  connected  with 
guidance ;  let  us  here  consider  that  needed  for  the 
following :  obtaining  vocational  information ;  choosing 
the  occupation  ;  preparing  for  the  vocation  ;  instituting 
and  managing  part-time  work ;  placement ;  employ- 
ment supervision ;  improving  conditions  of  employment ; 
legislation. 

Cooperation  for  obtaining  Vocational  Information.  — 
Vocational  information  can  best  be  obtained  as  it  was  in 
Richmond  and  Minneapolis,  —  by  the  cordial  joint 
action  of  employer,  worker,  and  school.  The  teacher 
must  be  welcomed  when  he  goes  into  the  office,  store, 
shop,  or  factory  to  ask  questions,  and  he  must  be  priv- 
ileged to  ask  the  questions  both  of  the  managers  and 
of  the  workers.  The  cooperation  must  be  so  genuine 
that  the  investigator  can  be  reasonably  sure  that  the 
avenues  of  information  are  all  open  to  him,  and  that  the 
replies  he  gets  to  his  questions  are  truthful,  with  nothing 
held  back.  Much  yet  remains  to  be  done  before  these 
ideals  are  fully  realized,  but  the  progress  during  the  past 
five  years  has  been  so  astonishing  that  there  is  no  doubt 
about  the  final  outcome. 

On  pages  128-137  we  have  outlined  a  plan  for  gather- 
ing the  necessary  information,  and  have  indicated  that 
clubs,  associations,  unions,  and  organizations  of  many 
other  kinds  can  profitably  join  in  the  work.  The  school 
people  should  lead,  because  if  equipped  for  the  work 


246  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

they  will  be  the  best  judges  regarding  what  knowledge 
is  of  most  worth.  The  viewpoint  of  the  school  people 
in  this  particular  should  be  determined  by  the  researches 
and  mature  conclusions  of  the  vocational-guidance  de- 
partment. In  the  work  of  gathering  information  the 
children  in  the  schools  can  help ;  the  knowledge  most 
useful  to  them  is  that  which  they  create  for  themselves 
through  their  work  in  geography,  arithmetic,  and  the 
life-career  class. 

Extensive  cooperation  between  school  and  employer  is 
likely  to  be  the  rule,  because  of  the  great  returns  which 
are  bound  to  flow  from  it.  The  employer  will  find  a 
better  class  of  workers  coming  to  him,  and  will  note  that 
his  business  has  less  of  its  speculative  and  disappointing 
features,  and  offers  more  real  satisfaction.^  The  benefits 
to  the  worker  flowing  from  joint  action  with  school  and 
manager  will  be  increased  intelligence,  better  provision 
for  education,  and  improved  conditions  of  employment. 
Finally,  to  the  school  the  advantages  of  work  with  these 
other  agencies  are  patent ;  the  educational  system  derives 
from  them  the  points  of  view  necessary  to  make  it  of 
real  service  to  the  public. 

Cooperation  in  choosing  the  Occupation.  —  The  child's 
choice  of  occupation  should  involve,  besides  the  use  of 
vocational  information  already  noted,  the  possibility  for 
him  to  meet  and  talk  with  workers  already  engaged  in 
the  occupations  under  consideration.     The  vocational 

1  This  satisfaction  is  expressed  in  the  title  of  a  recent  book,  Where 
Garments  and  Americans  are  Made.     (MacCarthy.) 


A   PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  247 

guide,  therefore,  should  arrange  for  conferences  in  which 
the  pupils  in  the  life-career  classes  may  question  expe- 
rienced adults ;  he  should  organize  volunteer  committees 
after  the  Birmingham  plan. 

The  choice  of  occupation  should  be  the  concern  of 
the  parent  almost  as  much  as  it  is  that  of  the  child,  and 
the  work  of  the  counselor  will  include  many  conferences 
with  fathers  and  mothers.  At  least  one  large  high  school, 
that  at  Pomona,  California,  has  organized  a  course  of 
talks  and  discussions  for  the  parents,  in  order  that 
their  function  in  guidance  may  be  more  intelligently 
understood  and  performed.  Such  meetings  furnish 
excellent  opportunity  to  interest  citizens  in  the  efforts 
of  the  school  to  give  effective  training  to  the  children, 
and  to  obtain  helpful  criticism.  Besides,  such  gatherings 
are  certain  to  lead  to  conferences  with  individual  parents, 
in  which  the  plans  for  each  child  may  receive  the  dis- 
cussion, criticism,  cooperation,  and  support  so  necessary 
for  the  wise  choice  of  a  life-career.  In  some  cases  the 
vocational  counselor  must  protect  the  child  from 
decisions  arbitrarily  made  and  insisted  on  by  the  home. 
In  many  cases  the  value  of  more  education  must  be 
clearly  shown.  In  a  large  number,  hopes  and  ambitions 
may  be  encouraged,  and  means  and  methods  found  for 
their  realization.  In  all  cases  the  parents  may  be 
shown  the  advantage  of  keeping  the  educational  op- 
portunity for  the  child  broad,  and  for  prolonging  his 
vocational  infancy.  In  all  cases,  too,  the  school  and 
the  home  may  cooperate  in  making  the  most  of  the 


248  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

daily  opportunities  for  broadening  the  child's  knowledge 
and  experience.^ 

Cooperation  in  Preparing  for  the  Vocation.  —  Prepara- 
tion for  the  vocation,  too,  will  require  that  the  child  have 
access  to  persons  of  experience,  success,  and  good  judg- 
ment, so  that  he  may  be  able  to  get  first-hand  informa- 
tion and  advice  about  the  proper  method  of  preparation. ^ 

1  In  view  of  occasional  writings  on  vocational  guidance  it  cannot  be 
too  strongly  insisted  upon  that  no  child  should  be  hurried  into  the  choice 
of  an  occupation.  If  cooperation  aims  to  find  the  child  his  calling  be- 
fore he  is  ready  to  choose  for  himself,  then  that  cooperation  is  ill-advised. 
The  forces  of  school,  home,  and  community  should  be  used  rather  to  fit 
the  child,  by  means  of  knowledge  and  concrete  experience,  so  that  he 
shall  be  able  to  make  his  own  decisions  wisely.  We  have  advocated  a 
life-career  class  in  the  fourth  grade ;  it  must  not  be  understood,  however, 
that  such  a  class  is  to  be  concerned  with  anything  more  than  laying  the 
foundation  for  wise  choices  later.  It  is  true  that  leakages  from  school 
begin  to  be  serious  shortly  after  the  fourth  grade,  and  on  this  account 
the  teacher  may  find  it  necessary  to  give  rather  definite  vocational 
information  to  those  children  who  threaten  to  leave  school  soon.  Such 
cases,  however,  must  not  be  allowed  to  determine  the  subject-matter  of 
the  class ;  it  is  better  in  the  long  run  for  the  teacher  to  combat  this  state 
of  affairs  (leaving  school  in  the  early  grades),  than  to  seem  to  acquiesce 
in  it.  Future  generations  of  school  children  must  be  considered,  and 
while  for  the  present  some  fifth  grade  children  may  be  forced  to  take 
what  work  they  can  get,  the  great  majority  cannot  be  expected  to  decide 
wisely  until  they  are  close  to  the  twenties,  and  some  not  until  much  later. 
The  life-career  class  in  the  fourth  grade  is  concerned  with  laying  broad 
foundations  for  the  choice  of  career,  and  this  actual  choice  should  be 
deferred  until  the  child  is  fully  ready  to  make  it.  (Cf.  the  proposed 
plan  for  tentative  choices  of  three  to  five  occupations  for  special  study.) 

2  The  work  of  supervising  this  personal  advice  is  a  very  important 
duty  of  the  counselor.  Some  successful  men  and  women  are  not  very 
eflacient  in  helping  others  to  succeed.  The  advisors  should  frequently 
be  called  into  conference,  and,  so  far  as  seems  appropriate,  the  scope 
of  their  work  and  their  methods  as  well  should  be  planned  by  the  voca- 
tional counselor  and  put  into  printed  form. 


A    PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  249 

In  connection  with  prevocational  and  vocational  educa- 
tion of  whatever  sort,  the  school  department  should 
organize  advisory  committees  of  employers  and  workers, 
and  these  committees,  each  for  a  particular  occupation 
or  group  of  occupations,  should  aid  the  school  in  making 
the  training  efficient. 

Cooperation  in  Instituting  and  Managing  Part-time 
Work.  —  If  the  vocational  training  is  to  take  the  form 
of  part-time  work,  as  no  doubt  it  will  in  many  cases, 
the  school  authorities  will  have  to  make  agreements 
with  the  stores,  shops,  offices,  and  factories  in  which  the 
students  work.  The  plans  used  in  Cincinnati  and 
Dayton  ^  seem  to  give  satisfaction.  In  the  words  of 
Schneider : 

It  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  that  the  school 
and  shop  can  work  together  if  the  one  common  ground  will 
be  the  mutually  safe  ground  of  the  mental,  physical,  and 
the  moral  advancement  of  those  who  work.  .  .  .  The  thing 
is  being  done  and  is  being  done  satisfactorily  (p.  76). 

Good  reports  come,  too,  from  those  in  charge  of  the 
Boston  experiments.  It  is  but  just  that  the  workers 
already  in  an  industry  should  also  be  a  party  to  part- 
time  agreements,  in  order  that  sudden  surpluses  of 
workers  may  be  avoided.  The  school  must  gather  to- 
gether all  interested  parties,  —  parents,  youth,  teachers, 
employers,  and  representatives  of  the  workers,  —  and 
must  aid  them  all  in  formulating  agreements  which  shall 

*  See  Schneider,  Education  far,  etc.,  p.  55-5  7;  also  Rochester  and 
Dayton  leaflets. 


250  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

center  their  attention  on  the  welfare  of  the  worker, 
and  at  the  same  time  protect  the  legitimate  interests 
of  all  concerned.  After  the  part-time  work  is  instituted 
the  "  coordinators  "  must  represent  and  put  into  effect 
the  cooperation  between  school  and  occupation.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  see  that  if  the  school  can  succeed  in  these 
undertakings,  the  social  effect  in  the  direction  of  solving 
labor  problems  will  be  very  great  indeed. 

Cooperation  in  Placement.  —  In  Chapter  IV,  and  in 
other  places  as  well,  we  have  discussed  the  necessity 
for  beginning  guidance  before  the  child  is  obliged  to  leave 
school  for  work.  If  a  system  of  vocational  guidance 
begins  in  the  school,  and  early  enough  to  give  the  child 
some  insight  and  outlook  regarding  occupations  before 
he  needs  to  leave,  there  can  be  nothing  but  approval  if 
placement  and  supervision  of  employment  also  form 
parts  of  the  system.  As  we  stated  before,  however, 
among  some  people  placement  has  been  taken  to 
mean  the  chief  if  not  the  whole  function  of  vocational 
guidance.  It  is  undoubtedly  an  important  part,  but  it 
is  likely  that  more  fruitful  results  in  vocational  guidance 
will  be  accomplished  in  the  period  of  the  child's  life 
before  he  leaves  school  for  work  than  can  be  accom- 
plished thereafter.  Placement  has  always  been  a  dis- 
quieting problem,  and  the  entrance  of  educational  and 
philanthropic  agencies  into  the  field  has  not  been  alto- 
gether a  happy  one.  Just  when  the  merchants  and 
manufacturers  have  about  concluded  that  the  fourteen- 
to  sixteen-year-old  working  child  is  useless  to  himself 


A   PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  2$ I 

and  to  the  occupation,  the  placement  people  come,  study 
the  child  and  the  job,  watch  over  his  entrance  into  work, 
advise  and  admonish  him,  and  make  of  him  a  tolerable 
success.  Thus  the  merchant  or  manufacturer  is  con- 
vinced that  his  diagnosis  was  wrong,  and  becomes 
satisfied  to  employ  children  again.  It  is  such  considera- 
tions that  lead  thoughtful  social  workers  to  look  with 
concern  on  the  vocational  guidance  which  interests 
itself  merely  in  placement  and  employment  supervision. 

In  spite  of  these  dangers,  however,  there  is  no  ques- 
tion but  that  better  methods  of  finding  work  are  needed. 
What  can  be  done  ?  In  the  first  place,  the  school  should 
cooperate  with  the  employers  in  finding  out  about  the 
number  of  persons  engaged  in  each  kind  of  work,  and 
the  approximate  number  hired  each  year.  Second,  the 
school  can  ascertain  and  pubHsh  the  list  of  actual  present 
vacancies.  Third,  the  counselor  can  use  his  influence 
in  systematizing  and  rationahzing  the  hiring  of  workers  — ■ 
he  can  cooperate  with  employment  managers'  associa- 
tions, and  can  aid  in  writing  the  specifications  of  jobs  and 
in  formulating  application  blanks  and  preliminary  tests. 

We  cannot  yet  state  that  the  school  department  should 
maintain  an  employment  agency  for  minors.  No  doubt 
public  cmplo}'ment  agencies  will  e.xtend  their  operations, 
until  finally  the  private  agency,  with  all  its  abuses,  will 
be  no  more.  But  it  may  seem  best  for  the  municipal 
or  state  bureau  to  confine  its  attention  to  persons  over 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  to  leave  to  the  school  de- 
partment the  emplo^-ment  and  super\ision  of  those  under 


252  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

twenty-one.  (At  the  least  the  juvenile  labor  exchange 
should  be  a  separate  department  from  that  for  the  adults.) 
Legislation  must  soon  bring  under  the  school's  supervision 
the  working  conditions  of  minors,  for  an  aroused  public 
will  not  long  be  complaisant  with  all  care  devoted  to  the 
few  and  with  those  most  exposed  to  danger  allowed  to 
shift  for  themselves.  What  the  nature  of  the  legislation 
should  be  seems  impossible  to  say ;  but  we  do  know  that 
there  are  certain  logical  next  steps  which  will  aid  us  in 
developing  a  satisfactory  system.  For  example,  the 
work  certificate,  already  required  in  many  cities,  is  a 
great  step  in  advance.  Cincinnati,  Boston,  and  other 
cities  now  require  a  new  certificate  for  each  new  job. 
The  first  certificate  is  issued  only  after  the  child  already 
has  the  promise  of  a  job.  Right  here  a  new  step  seems 
practicable.  Why  should  not  the  work  certificate 
office  have  a  written  copy  of  the  agreement  between  the 
child  and  the  employer  ?  With  this  step  taken  the  school 
authorities  would  be  in  a  much  better  position  to  propose 
and  finally  enforce  certain  minimum  requirements  in  the 
conditions  of  employment. 

In  the  next  place,  why  might  not  the  employer  be  asked 
to  refrain  from  advertising  for  persons  under  twenty-one 
and  from  sending  for  them  to  the  private  emplo}Tnent 
agencies  ?  If  we  grant  the  propriety  of  asking  the  child 
to  come  to  the  ofiice  for  a  new  working  certificate,  why 
should  not  we  grant  the  propriety  of  the  employer's 
being  required  to  notify  a  school  placement  bureau 
whenever  he  has  a  vacancy  to  be  filled  by  a  minor  ?    If 


A   PROGRAM   FOR  VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  253 

this  plan  seems  to  be  too  far-reaching,  or  if  it  must  be 
introduced  gradually,  the  requirement  may  be  modified 
to  the  rule  that  the  employer  must  notify  the  school 
placement  bureau  before  advertising  or  sending  word 
to  other  agencies.  Through  some  such  plan  as  this 
proposed,  the  vocational-guidance  bureau  could  better 
working  conditions  without  on  the  one  hand  interfering 
to  an  unwarranted  degree  with  the  business  affairs  of  the 
employer,  or  on  the  other  hand  imposing  a  paternalistic 
system  of  job-assignment  upon  the  worker.  The  em- 
ployer would  still  be  able  to  select  his  help,  and  the  worker 
to  select  his  job.  But  the  information  about  the  vacancy 
would  be  available  at  the  central  office,  the  specifications 
of  the  job  would  be  known,  and  the  present  haphazard 
method  of  job  hunting  would  be  partly  broken  up.  Fur- 
ther, the  plan  proposed  would  very  likely  prevent  much  of 
the  "  job-hoboism  "  now  caused  by  the  habit  of  boys  and 
girls  of  going  to  another  job  with  the  blind  hope  that  it  may 
by  good  luck  prove  better  than  the  one  they  now  have. 
Cooperation  in  Employment  Supervision.  —  Coopera- 
tion in  employment  supervision  is  essential.  Legisla- 
tion or  no  legislation,  the  school  people  can  do  little 
without  the  cordial  support  of  the  workers  and  the  em- 
ployers. Here  are  two  great  tasks  to  be  worked  out  by 
joint  action :  the  job  must  be  made  to  serve  the  highest 
purposes  of  the  boy  or  girl ;  and  the  accessions  to  industry 
should  be  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  serve  rather  than  to 
interfere  with  the  interests  of  all  concerned.  No  service 
the  school  can  render  is  of  greater  moment. 


254  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

How  can  the  teacher  single-handed  begin  the  solution 
of  these  problems,  without  waiting  for  the  inauguration 
of  a  system  ?  He  may  start  at  any  time  by  following  the 
children  whom  he  knows,  finding  out  from  them  how 
they  are  getting  on  in  the  occupation,  and  talking  with 
their  employers  and  co-workers.  Later,  if  he  feels  pre- 
pared to  extend  the  work,  he  may  confer  with  representa- 
tives of  labor  and  with  employers,  may  aid  them  in 
writing  the  specifications  of  certain  jobs,  may  find  out 
and  advise  in  regard  to  ways  of  promotion,  may  secure 
advice  about  the  work  offered  in  the  school,  may  ask 
cooperation  in  providing  extension  courses  for  children 
at  work,  and  may  make  an  effort  to  establish  and  extend 
part-time  work.  Such  cooperation  should  serve  to 
improve  the  vocational  guidance  both  in  the  school  and 
in  the  occupation,  and  should  pave  the  way  for  better 
understanding  and  efficient  joint  action  beneficial  to 
all  concerned. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  we  must  still  provide,  in  our 
system  of  employment  supervision,  for  keeping  individual 
contact  with  the  worker.  This  may  be  done  by  means 
of  volunteer  helpers,  or  in  the  cities  through  officers 
stationed  in  the  individual  schools  in  various  parts  of  the 
city.  These  supervisors  or  helpers  should  frequently 
be  called  into  conference  to  exchange  experiences  and 
formulate  policies. 

Cooperation  in  Improving  Conditions  of  Labor.  —  All 
that  we  have  proposed  should  operate  to  improve  the 
conditions  of  labor.     But  what  about  the  larger  questions 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  255 

of  industry:  unions,  steady  employment,  scientific 
management,  adequate  wages,  opportunity  for  career, 
industrial  democracy?  Can  the  school  cooperate  in 
the  solution  of  these  perplexing  questions  ?  The  answer 
is  that  it  has  so  cooperated  and  is  doing  so  at  the  present 
time.  The  Minneapolis,  Milwaukee,  and  Rochester 
trade  agreements,  the  interest  of  educational  people  in 
the  employment  managers'  associations,  the  joint  action 
in  the  industrial  and  commercial  surveys,  the  participa- 
tion in  the  activities  of  Chambers  of  Commerce  —  all 
testify  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  school's  new-found 
interest  in  the  world  for  which  the  children  are  being  pre- 
pared. Further,  the  young  people  are  being  taught  some- 
thing about  the  problems  of  employment,  and  no  doubt, 
when  all  else  is  said  and  done,  the  training  of  a  new 
generation  of  workers,  prepared  to  cope  intelligently  with 
these  problems,  is  the  most  sane  and  effective  way  of 
getting  them  solved. 

Cooperation  in  Legislation.  —  Laws  which  run  far 
ahead  of  public  desire  or  public  intelligence  are  apt  to 
give  more  trouble  than  they  are  worth.  Hence  the  need 
for  the  kind  of  teaching  of  which  we  have  just  spoken  — 
that  about  the  problems  of  employment.  When  the 
time  is  ripe  for  new  steps  in  legislation,  however,  the 
school  must  cooperate  in  bringing  these  laws  to  pass. 
Li  order  that  the  contribution  of  the  school  may  be 
intelligent  and  effective,  vocational  counselors  must 
make  many  connections  which  give  them  information 
and  influence  respected  by  the  lawmakers.     Thus,  the 


256  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

man  in  charge  of  the  vocational-guidance  movement  in 
Grand  Rapids,  Jesse  B.  Davis,  has  recently  been  chosen 
a  director  of  the  Grand  Rapids  Chamber  of  Commerce ; 
this  position  gives  the  movement  an  excellent  opportunity 
both  to  gather  information  about  the  practicability  of 
desired  legislation,  and  to  express  and  support  effectively 
its  proposals.  Bloomfield  has  always  kept  in  touch 
with  organizations  of  employers  and  employed.  The 
counselor  should  keep  himself  in  touch  with  many 
kinds  of  organizations,  and  should  gain  their  confidence 
and  support. 

When  legislation  is  under  consideration,  the  committees 
on  education  and  on  industry  in  the  legislature  must  be 
aided  in  their  work ;  this  should  be  an  important  duty 
of  the  vocational  guide.  Information  should  be  fur- 
nished the  members  of  the  committee  about  practices 
in  other  cities  and  states,  the  results  of  investigations 
should  be  given  them  in  summary  fashion,  and  the 
counselor  should  be  ready  to  speak  before  the  committee 
effectively.  As  a  preparation  for  such  work  wide  reading 
and  some  knowledge  of  laws  will  be  necessary,  and  it 
would  be  well  for  the  vocational-guidance  department  to 
have  faciUties  for  preparing  sample  laws  as  suggestions 
to  interested  members  of  the  legislature. 

It  should  go  without  saying  that  in  the  preparation  of 
bills  the  counselor  needs  to  cooperate  with  all  persons 
in  the  state  interested  in  the  active  work  of  vocational 
guidance,  and,  most  important,  that  he  should  whenever 
possible  secure  the  point  of  view,  advice,  and  active 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  257 

support  of  all  the  organizations  of  employers,  workers, 
teachers,  and  other  interested  persons. 

We  have  here  attempted  to  show  the  main  avenues  of 
cooperation  open  to  the  vocational-guidance  movement 
in  furthering  its  work,  and  to  show  that  without  this 
joint  action  the  work  would  be  greatly  handicapped. 
We  shall  now  discuss  more  specifically  the  conditions 
within  the  occupations  themselves,  and  shall  try  to  find 
a  basis  for  determining  what  the  relation  of  the  move- 
ment for  vocational  guidance  should  be  toward  them. 

The  Improvement  of  the  Conditions  of  Employment. 
Opportunity  for  Part-time  Work.  —  The  experience 
already  furnished  by  the  continuation  school  indicates 
the  values  in  such  training  to  worker  and  to  employer. 
It  is  already  evident  that  the  continuation-school 
principle  might  with  profit  be  extended  to  include  much 
more  time  devoted  to  school  work,  and  to  apply  to  many 
more  workers.  We  have  already  proposed  a  plan  for 
errand  boys  and  girls  to  work  at  the  occupation  four 
hours  daily  and  spend  four  other  hours  in  the  work  and 
play  of  school  (p.  197).  Again,  the  work  of  many 
department  stores  in  organizing  short  courses  for  adult 
workers  indicates  what  may  be  done  with  profit  by  the 
schools,  for  workers  of  all  ages.  The  Boston  Continua- 
tion School  maintains  such  voluntary  classes,  and  devotes 
a  section  of  the  report  to  them  (Circular,  pp.  34-44), 

In  instituting  continuation  classes  or  part-time  work 
great  care  is  needed  to  make  adjustments  satisfactory  in 
view  of  the  time  schedule  of  the  establishments  served. 


258  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

and  to  supervise  the  work  of  the  employees.  If  the  half- 
time  plan  be  used  for  children  up  to  sixteen  or  seventeen 
years  of  age,  the  employer  will  be  forced  to  deal  with 
double  the  number  of  individuals  he  did  before,  and 
should  be  aided  by  the  school  in  every  legitimate  way. 
Thus,  the  school  may  arrange  after-hours  conferences 
with  the  children  from  each  establishment,  in  this  way 
doing  part  of  the  work  of  teaching  the  rules  and  duties 
of  the  tasks.  Again,  a  person  about  to  enter  a  given 
estabhshment  may  be  put  under  the  preliminary  tutelage 
of  another  person  in  that  establishment.  Finally,  the 
school  may  make  itself  a  clearing  house  for  information 
about  writing  the  specifications  of  jobs,  and  may  aid 
the  employment  managers  of  establishments  to  plan 
their  working  tasks  so  carefully  that  the  initiation  of  a 
beginner  and  the  supervision  of  a  regular  worker  will 
not  present  such  difficulties  as  they  do  now. 

The  opportunity  for  part-time  work  seems  eminently 
desirable ;  it  should  serve  to  free  the  child  from  the 
sudden  plunge  into  the  occupation,  which  frequently 
means  for  him  mistakes,  misunderstandings,  discourage- 
ment, temptations,  and  failures.  Part-time  work  would 
also  make  possible  a  better  correlation  between  the 
school  program  and  the  occupational  needs  of  the  pupils ; 
this  advantage  alone  seems  so  promising  that  it  would  not 
be  surprising  to  see  the  part-time  plan  extend  itself  till 
it  applies  to  many  workers  over  twenty-one  years  of  age.^ 

^  See  article  on  National  Association  of  Corporation  Schools,  World's 
Work,  vol.  31,  No.  4,  Feb.  19 16,  pp.  417-420.    See  also  Thum. 


A    PROGRAM  FOR   VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  259 

Again,  as  we  have  indicated  above,  it  would  inevitably 
make  possible  a  better  system  of  employment  supervision. 
Its  manifold  advantages  should  commend  to  the  coun- 
selor the  effort  to  arrange  for  a  part-time  agreement 
whenever  it  seems  necessary  for  a  child  to  leave  school. 

School  systems  on  their  part  should  not  be  backward 
in  readjusting  their  programs.  Boston  high  schools 
already  make  it  a  practice  to  allow  senior  girls  to  spend 
Mondays  in  the  stores.  No  plea  that  "  the  work  of  the 
school  is  interfered  with  "  should  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
more  important  duty  of  holding  children  under  the  school 
influence  a  little  longer  and  preparing  them  adequately 
for  the  tasks  ahead  of  them. 

Extending  the  Work  of  the  Employment  Manager.  ^ 
The  employment  manager  of  the  establishment  deals  with 
the  occupational  problems  with  which  the  school  is  most 
concerned.  The  vocational  guide,  therefore,  whether 
acting  as  teacher,  placement  officer,  or  employment  super- 
visor, must  do  whatever  he  can  (i)  to  induce  firms  to  put 
the  solution  of  the  employment  problems  in  charge  of 
some  one  agent ;  (2)  to  help  to  make  the  position  of  the 
employment  manager  so  important  that  this  officer  will 
have  real  influence  in  determining  the  policies  of  the 
estabUshment ;  (3)  to  cooperate  with  the  manager  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  emplo>Tnent  supervision 
on  behalf  of  the  schools;  (4)  to  induce  and  aid  the 
employment  managers  of  a  city  or  metropoHtan  area  to 
study  their  problems  and  to  improve  their  methods 
through  conferences,  visits,  and  joint  action;    (5)   to 


26o  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

further  the  professional  training  of  employment  man- 
agers, whether  through  college  courses,  business-school 
courses,  or  private  study. 

The  Opportunity  for  a  Career  in  the  Occupation.  — 
We  have  shown  that  Professor  Hoxie's  investigations 
led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  scientific  management  in 
practice  has  not  so  far  succeeded  in  choosing  for  the  men 
the  tasks  best  suited  to  their  abilities  or  in  adapting 
the  tasks  to  the  workers.  We  have  also  seen  how  one 
progressive  plant,  under  the  system  of  transferring 
workers  to  tasks  better  adapted  to  them,  as  worked  out 
by  its  employment  manager,  has  been  able  to  secure 
better  work  and  a  more  contented  force.  The  thing 
most  needed  in  the  occupational  world,  apparently,  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  desire  for  advancement,  is  a  mapping 
out  of  all  the  jobs  in  an  establishment  in  such  a  way  that 
paths  will  lead  successively  from  one  to  the  other  in  an 
orderly  series  of  promotions.  The  school  exemplifies 
the  promotion  idea;  no  doubt  the  worker  wishes  it 
to  follow  him  into  the  occupation. 

To  the  average  factory  manager,  perhaps  this  problem 
would  seem  insoluble.  The  machinery  of  the  factory  — 
the  actual  machines,  we  mean  —  gets  in  the  way  of  a 
solution.  It  is  difficult  and  expensive  for  the  manage- 
ment to  teach  the  profitable  operation  of  many  machines 
to  any  one  individual.^    There  never  has  been,  therefore, 

*  Automatic  machinery  makes  this  versatility  less  difficult.  In  any 
case  it  must  be  done,  and  is  done,  in  many  establishments,  with  profit 
to  all  concerned. 


A    PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  261 

generally  speaking,  any  line  of  promotion  throughout 
the  factory.  That  would  involve  teaching,  and  it  has 
usually  been  assumed  that  there  were  two  separate  com- 
partments —  teaching,  all  in  the  school,  and  doing,  all 
in  the  occupation. 

Yet  some  hints  of  a  better  policy  have  been  noted. 
The  messenger  boys  of  the  London  post  office  are  being 
trained  to  pass  examinations  for  letter  carriers.^  The 
jobs  in  the  Dennison  factory  have  been  put  into  three 
classes  so  that  the  members  of  the  force  can  prepare  them- 
selves for  higher  kinds  of  work.  And  the  effort  to  write 
down  the  specifications  of  jobs  facilitates  comparison : 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  job  may  be 
more  readily  seen.  The  system  of  transfers  then  aids 
the  worker  in  securing  the  proper  task. 

It  is  the  school's  further  duty  and  right  to  teach  the 
children  that  they  are  to  take  their  part  in  the  continuous 
process  of  improving  the  vocations.  It  will  be  agreed, 
in  spite  of  the  apparent  difficulties  in  the  way,  that  in 
time  the  occupation  must  reUeve  the  worker  of  the  monot- 
ony of  machine-like  labor  by  change  of  work  and  rotation 
of  tasks ;  must  have  a  comprehensive  plan  of  promotions 
whereby  vacancies  in  the  higher  positions  can  be  filled 
by  persons  occupying  those  below ;  must  make  it  easy 
to  register  complaints  and  suggestions  from  the  workers ; 
must  in  many  cases  progressively  shorten  the  hours  of 
labor  and  raise  the  wages ;  must  ofTer  opportunities  for 
advanced  study ;  must  conserve  the  productive  element 

»  Dearie,  pp.  377,  378. 


262  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

as  against  the  mere  mechanical  in  the  work-tasks  of  the 
unskilled  ^  and  must  somehow  make  progress  toward 
giving  the  workers  a  share  in  determining  the  rules  and 
conditions  under  which  they  shall  work.  Without 
these  improvements  a  "  job  "  can  hardly  be  said  to  ofEer  a 
"  career."  Hence  the  vocational  counselor,  whose 
ideal  must  be  an  opportunity  for  a  career  for  every 
worker,  is  very  much  concerned  with  all  efforts  to  carry 
out  these  proposals. 

Opportunity  to  use  the  Land.  —  The  real  seriousness 
of  the  land  question  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in  the 
Manly  report  for  the  Commission  on  Industrial  Relations, 
a  report  whose  conclusions  have  been  questioned,  but 
whose  facts  speak  for  themselves.  On  pages  127-132 
he  treats  of  "  The  Land  Question  and  the  Condition 
of  Agricultural  Labor,"  showing  the  alarming  growth 
of  tenancy  farming,  with  its  wastefulness,  extortion, 
debt,  discouragement,  irresponsibility,  concentration  of 
wealth,  and  poverty.  In  eighty-two  Texas  counties 
tenants  operate  on  an  average  sixty  per  cent  of  the 
farms. 

Manly  recommends  the  exemption  from  taxation  of 
all  improvements  and  the  taxation  at  full  value  of  un- 
used land.  Whether  or  not  the  land  tax  or  single-tax  plan 
would  help  to  solve  the  problem,  the  vocational  counselor 
must  realize  that  here  is  work  for  him  to  do,  in  the  study 
of  this  question  and  in  cooperating  for  its  solution. 
Furthermore,  the  school  pupils,  especially  those  who  are 

^  See  Woods  in  Bloomfield's  Readings,  p.  31. 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  263 

considering  farming  as  a  vocation,  must  be  informed  con- 
cerning this  acute  problem. 

The  amelioration  of  conditions  of  labor  must  go  on 
under  the  patronage  of  enlightened  employers,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  workers  must  be  awakened  to  deserve 
and  require  better  things.  Many  forces  work  for  social 
reform,  and  the  vocational-guidance  movement  must 
cooperate  with  all  of  them. 

Methods  of  Guidance.  Arousing  the  Child's  Interest 
in  his  Career.  —  It  is  one  thing  to  guide  a  child  who  wants 
help  in  choosing  his  career,  and  quite  another  to  arouse 
a  person  who  shows  no  interest  in  the  question  of  his 
vocation.  The  logic  of  the  recent  studies  of  elimination 
from  school  is  that  the  child  must  begin  to  think  about 
his  vocation  at  the  fifth  grade  or  earlier.  This  does  not 
mean  that  he  must  at  once  choose  a  vocation,  but  rather 
that  he  should  begin  thinking  about  the  purposes  of 
his  schooling  and  the  occupations  of  his  environment. 
We  have  shown  that  from  earliest  years,  both  in  play 
and  in  studies,  he  may  profitably  think  much  in  terms  of 
occupations.  This  should  arouse  his  interest  in  consider- 
ing the  part  he  himself  will  play  in  the  world.  Davis 
says  that  pupils  who  take  part  in  student  activities  are 
the  most  desirable  when  it  comes  to  tilling  positions  in 
the  commercial  or  industrial  world ;  ^  the  counselor 
should  foster  these  organizations  of  students  as  a  means 
of  arousing  interest  in  the  life-career. 

Even  in  the  actual  life-career  class  the  teacher  may 

*  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance,  p.  125. 


264  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

find  pupils  little  interested  in  analyzing  occupations  or 
discovering  aptitudes.     Bloomfield  has  suggested  then 
that  the  teacher  of  a  group  of  city  boys  might  begin 
with  an  occupation  such  as  that  of  a  professional  baseball 
player.     Thus,  the  members  of  the  class  might  be  led  to 
draw  up  the  specifications  of  the  job  of  catcher  on  a  big 
league  team:    the  kind  of  man  wanted,  the  pay,  the 
season,  the  traveling,  the  lack  of  home  Hfe,  the  excite- 
ment, the  notoriety,  the  period  of  usefulness,  the  prep- 
aration necessary,  the  way  of  entering  the  occupation, 
and  the  dozens  of  other  things  which  the  boys  will  think 
out.     The  work  of  the  school  janitor  may  be  analyzed, 
and  then  that  of  the  teacher,  the  conductor,  the  motor- 
man,  the  policeman,  the  actor,  and  the  banker.     This 
method  follows  the  interest  and  common  knowledge  of 
the  children,  and  it  imposes  no  fixed  subject  matter  and 
outline  upon  them.     What  if  they  do  not  cover  certain 
standard  occupations  ?     Better  than  that,  they  will  have 
a  method  and  an  interest  which  they  can  apply  to  any 
situation;    these  will  outlast  any  amount  of  mere  in- 
formation. 

Having  developed  the  interest  of  the  children,  we 
shall  need  to  guide  them  through  the  successive  steps 
which  each  individual  takes.  For  convenience  we  have 
listed  these  steps  as  follows:  surveying  opportunities; 
choosing  the  occupation  ;  preparing  for  the  occupation ; 
entering  on  work;  progress  and  promotion;  change 
and  readjustment.  Between  the  treatments  of  the 
first  two,   as  contributing  to  both   if   not   all   of   the 


A   PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  265 

steps,  we  shall  interpolate  a  discussion  of  the  life-career 
class.  We  turn  now  to  a  brief  survey  of  each  of 
these  fields. 

Guidance  in  Surveying  Opportunities.  —  Opportunities 
may  be  considered  as  being  of  two  kinds  :  those  without, 
as  expressed  in  the  offerings  which  the  vocations  make ; 
and  those  within,  as  expressed  by  the  inclinations  and 
abihties  of  the  individual.  It  has  been  said  that  voca- 
tional guidance  consists  in  the  harmonious  adjustment 
and  cooperation  of  these  two  factors.  Let  us  consider 
first  the  discovery  of  one's  own  powers  and  interests. 

The  burden  of  Chapter  III  is  that  the  best  vocational 
guidance  is  that  accomplished  by  means  of  educational 
guidance.  Thus  the  prevocational  plan,  or  the  junior 
high  school  with  a  program  which  includes  manual  work 
of  a  practical  sort,  enables  the  child  to  measure  himself 
by  several  kinds  of  tests,  and  thereby  aids  him  in  finding 
out  what  his  powers  and  inclinations  are.  Much  of  the 
academic  work  of  these  schools  may  be  closely  related  to 
the  manual  work,  the  tasks  may  be  set  within  the  powers 
of  the  child,  and  he  may  be  given  a  wide  variety  of  expe- 
riences. Again,  student  and  club  activities  should  be 
encouraged,  for  through  them  many  pupils  find  them- 
selves. Every  child  may  be  asked  the  questions :  To 
what  organizations  do  you  belong?  What  do  you  do  in 
them  ?  What  activities  do  you  like  best  ?  How  do  you 
spend  your  leisure  time?  Summer  camps,  corn  clubs, 
junior  associations,  dramatics,  student  self-government, 
school  papers,   debating,  bands,   and  orchestras,  —  all 


266  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

should  be  a  part  of  the  educational  guidance  of  school 
children. 

Outside  relationships  not  only  show  the  child  some- 
thing about  the  occupations ;  they  show  him  his  own 
powers  besides.  Thus,  if  men  and  women  from  the 
occupations,  workers  and  employers,  come  to  the 
school  to  talk  to  the  classes,  especially  if  the  groups  are 
small  and  questions  are  asked,  and  if  travel  trips  and 
visits  to  establishments  form  part  of  the  school's 
activities,  the  vocational  imagination  will  be  stirred 
and  clews  to  interests  and  abilities  may  be  found. 

The  child  will  need  more  than  mere  educational  advan- 
tages in  order  to  discover  his  interests  and  abilities :  he 
will  need  to  have  the  benefit  of  personal  conferences 
about  his  problems.  The  teacher  should  investigate  the 
choices  which  children  make,  —  their  choices  of  studies, 
courses,  companions,  and  schools.  Enrollment  blanks 
should  be  filled  out  anew  at  least  twice  each  year,  and 
on  them  the  child  should  be  asked  to  fill  in  his  choices 
of  occupations,  if  he  has  developed  any  preferences. 
Records  of  examinations  or  grades  in  school  studies  should 
be  put  upon  cards,  together  with  the  other  questions 
suggested  by  the  plans  outlined  above.  A  record  of  the 
child's  successes  should  go  with  him  through  the  grades. 

The  Life-career  Class.  —  The  class  for  the  study  of 
life  careers  serves  to  aid  the  child  to  survey  his  oppor- 
tunities, to  decide  on  his  career,  and  to  prepare  for  his 
vocation.     We  shall  therefore  treat  it  here. 

Should  the  Hfe-career  class  be  a  part  of  the  English 


A   PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL   GUmANCE  267 

work?  We  have  discussed  in  Chapter  III  the  relation  of 
this  work  to  literature,  written  composition,  and  Oral 
English.  All  of  them  can  be  of  use  in  vocational  guid- 
ance. But  the  subject  of  the  vocation  is  of  such  moment 
that  there  are  the  same  objections  to  making  it  sub- 
ordinate to  any  other  study  that  there  are  to  making  the 
vocational-guidance  department  of  the  city  schools  a 
subordinate  branch  of  another  department. 

What  then  should  be  the  plan  and  substance  of  the 
life-career  class  in  the  elementary  grades  ?  As  low  as  the 
fourth  grade  the  children  can  begin  to  discuss  the  work 
tasks  of  the  people  about  them,  to  bring  to  the  class 
information  they  have  gathered  from  outside  the 
schoolroom,  to  read  and  think  about  simple  biographies, 
to  analyze  the  tasks  of  a  few  typical  occupations,  to 
make  out  as  a  class  exercise  the  qualities  needed  in  cer- 
tain kinds  of  work,  and  each  to  start  a  scrapbook  of 
information  about  a  group  of  occupations  in  which  he 
expresses  most  interest. 

In  default  of  a  textbook  the  teacher  may  bring  out 
by  questions  and  discussions  the  meaning  of  the  education 
the  children  are  obtaining,  the  opportunities  ahead  of 
them,  and  the  value  of  definite  preparation  for  Hfe.  The 
work  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  may  follow  the  same 
general  plan,  the  children  building  up  their  own  knowl- 
edge, and  being  taught  more  and  more  to  use  outside 
sources  of  information,  and  to  bring  to  class  and  give  to 
the  others  interesting  data  about  occupations.  Here 
the  collecting  interest  can  be   utilized,   and  a  school 


268  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

museum  started,  made  up  of  both  ephemeral  and  per- 
manent material.  Business  circulars,  time-tables,  mail- 
order catalogues,  newspaper  clippings,  and  magazine 
articles  can  be  used,  and  a  notebook  devoted  to  written 
material,  clippings,  and  pictures  may  be  constructed 
by  each  pupil.  The  members  of  the  class  should  have 
access  to  books  on  occupations,  handy  books  for  boys 
and  girls,  and  simple  written  biographies,  and  the  teacher 
should  guide  the  children  in  their  reading. 

In  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades  more  system- 
atic work  can  be  done,  though  substantially  the  same 
methods  may  be  followed.  The  teacher  here  may  lead 
the  children  into  wider  experiences,  if  they  are  interested 
in  the  work,  and  may  make  a  general  survey  of  the  field 
of  occupations.  Further,  the  children  in  these  inter- 
mediate grades  can  begin  to  consider  two  things  more 
seriously :  the  value  of  continuing  with  their  education 
through  the  high-school  age,  and  the  systematic  and 
wise  choice  of  a  vocation.  In  connection  with  the 
question  of  high  school,  visits  may  be  arranged,  and 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  give  whatever  personal 
counsel  seems  appropriate.  There  should  in  time  be 
prepared  a  simple  textbook  for  the  life-career  class  of  the 
intermediate  grades,  with  its  material  well  within  the 
comprehension  of  the  children,  but  serving  as  sub- 
stance for  solid  study. 

With  the  high  school  age  a  good  textbook  would  be  of 
great  help,  and  there  is  need  for  definiteness  of  outline 
in  the  work  of  the  class. 


A   PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  269 

There  are  three  kinds  of  books  about  occupations  which 
the  teacher  should  avoid  in  choosing  texts  for  the  hfe- 
career  class:  (i)  many  of  those  written  by  successful 
men  and  women  about  their  own  occupations ;  (2)  those 
which  substitute  for  solid  facts  irrelevant  pictures  and 
claptrap;  (3)  those  hurriedly  and  carelessly  gotten  to- 
gether. Successful  men  and  women  of  the  past  genera- 
tion are  frequently  disquahfied  for  two  reasons  from 
telling  the  next  generation  how  to  succeed.  First,  the 
methods  in  business  and  industry,  and  in  many  pro- 
fessions, and  the  ethical  standards  as  well,  have  changed 
and  are  now  changing  so  radically  that  the  boy  or  girl 
who  copies  these  methods  has  little  guarantee  that 
satisfactory  results  will  follow.  Second,  the  successful 
man  or  woman  is  likely  to  treat  his  subject  in  a  personal, 
restricted  way,  to  emphasize  too  strongly  the  obstacles 
overcome,  and  to  paint  in  too  bright  colors  the  heights 
of  attainment  reached.  In  regard  to  the  second  and 
third  classes  of  textbooks  noted  above,  those  which  are 
overenthusiastic  and  those  which  are  hurriedly  put 
together,  we  need  not  point  out  the  dangers  in  their  use. 

The  class  in  vocations  should  be  as  serious  in  its  sub- 
ject-matter, methods,  and  requirements  as  any  other 
class,  and  nothing  but  the  best  should  be  used  as  text 
and  reference  books. 

The  textbook  should  be  supplied  with  exercises  and 
suggestive  questions,  and  should  provide  for  the  study 
of  printed  matter,  visits,  interviews,  original  investiga- 
tions,   reports,    discussions,    and    debates.     It    should 


270  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

candidly  state  the  difficulties  and  problems  in  the  occu- 
pations, and  should  touch  upon  the  social  and  economic 
questions  necessary  to  be  understood.  It  should  be 
free  from  sentimentalism  and  other  objectionable 
subject-matter.  Three  or  four  good  books  to  cover  the 
commercial,  industrial,  and  professional  occupations 
should  be  used  as  supplementary  texts,  and  the  books 
selected  should  have  been  written  with  the  modern 
vocational-guidance  point  of  view  in  mind. 

In  the  high  school  age  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  profit 
by  detailed  analyses  of  the  occupations,  and  by  analyses 
and  examinations  of  their  own  characteristics  as  measured 
by  concrete  requirements. 

The  college  also  should  maintain  a  life-career  class, 
for  college  students  do  much  thinking  on  the  perplexing 
question,  What  shall  I  do  ?  ^ 

In  all  the  life-career  classes,  whether  in  elementary 
school  or  college,  the  teacher  should  keep  a  personal 
record  card  for  each  student.  On  this  card  should  be 
noted  all  facts  and  opinions  which  indicate  strong  in- 
terests and  definite  forms  of  ability. 

Guidance  in  Choosing  the  Occupation.  —  On  pages 
125-128  we  have  indicated  some  of  the  principles  that 
should  govern  the  choice  of  a  vocation.  We  shall  here 
note  some  additional  observations  to  be  considered  in 
making  choices. 

Too  much  emphasis  should  not  be  put  upon  the  matter 

*  See  Elliff ;  and  also  Jennings,  who  shows  the  need  for  a  college 
vocational  bureau,  and  outlines  a  plan. 


A   PROGRAM  FOR  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  2^^ 

of  choice.  Like  the  overemphasis  placed  on  securing 
the  first  job,  this  tends  to  obscure  the  real  problems  — 
what  the  child  is  doing  to  succeed  in  his  present  tasks, 
what  he  is  going  to  do  after  choice,  and  whether  the  choice 
turns  out  to  be  a  wise  one.  Neither  should  the  child  be 
asked  to  decide  too  soon ;  if  he  is  occupying  his  time  in 
ways  profitable  to  himself  and  those  about  him  he  may 
well  be  allowed  to  take  his  time.  It  would  be  a  perfectly 
feasible  proposition  for  a  student  to  spend  time  preparing 
for  several  related  occupations,  and  to  continue  while 
actually  working  the  study  of  the  one  finally  chosen. 

Another  matter  for  careful  consideration  of  the 
counselor  is  the  temptation  upon  him  to  encourage  the 
brighter  boys  and  girls  to  go  into  the  professions,  or  at 
least  to  prepare  themselves  for  a  "  clean-collar  job." 
Are  not  these  aims  and  ambitions  often  based  on  a  false 
ideal  of  labor,  honor,  and  position  ?  Should  not  working 
conditions  and  our  conceptions  of  labor  be  reorganized 

Vto  give  as  good  a  basis  for  usefulness  and  happiness  on 
the  farm  and  in  the  shop  as  at  the  bar  and  in  the  pulpit  ? 
It  would  seem  to  be  a  far  safer  thing  to  do  to  train 
every  person  to  a  trade  than  to  train  every  one  to  a  pro- 
fession. It  has  often  been  remarked  that  some  men  do 
not  consider  themselves  quite  respectable  until  they 
have  at  least  failed  at  a  profession.  The  counselor 
can  combat  these  notions  by  telling  about  the  struggles 
for  success  and  the  low  average  earnings  in  the  professions, 
and  the  attractive  opportunities  in  other  fields,  provided 
one  will  thoroughly  prepare  himself  for  the  work.     What- 


272  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

ever  be  the  future  revision  of  thought  and  practice  in 
these  directions,  the  shop  work  of  the  prevocational 
school,  where  all  the  boys  meet  in  overalls  and  join  in 
productive  labor,  should  have  its  influence  for  good. 
The  teacher,  too,  can  aid  the  spread  of  a  better  attitude 
toward  labor,  particularly,  perhaps,  by  joining  with  the 
boys  in  the  work  of  caring  for  the  athletic  field  and  the 
running  track.  If  the  teacher  of  Latin  will  occasionally 
take  off  his  coat  and  help  rake  the  track  or  dig  up  the 
jumping  pit,  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  school  may  be  set 
to  thinking  some  thoughts  they  might  otherwise  miss.^ 

In  the  whole  problem  of  the  choice  of  an  occupation, 
breadth  of  education  and  of  experience  is  the  main  thing 
to  look  out  for.  The  nearer  the  school  can  come  to  the 
concrete  situations  of  life,  especially  in  the  upper  grades 
of  the  elementary  school  and  in  the  high  school,  the 
better. 

The  child  should  be  encouraged  to  aim  at  the  position 
which  will  give  most  satisfaction  to  his  interests  and  use 
most  effectively  his  powers.  At  the  same  time,  however, 
he  should  be  trained  to  self-reliant  usefulness  at  his 
present  stage  of  preparation,  so  that  he  could  take 
care  of  himself  whenever  the  necessity  should  arise. 

Guidance  in  Preparing  for  the  Occupation.  —  On  pages 
90-92  we  have  sketched  the  main  principles  one  may 
foUow  in  preparing  for  his  vocation.     Our  plan  involves 

1  Women  in  apartment  houses  are  sometimes  quite  thoughtless  of 
the  rights  and  feelings  of  the  janitor  or  of  tradespeople  who  serve  them. 
The  reason  seems  to  be  that  they  have  never  done  any  of  that  kind  of 
work  themselves  and  cannot  put  themselves  in  the  other  person's  place. 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  273 

breadth  of  preparation,  so  that  avenues  to  other  possible 
vocations  will  not  be  closed;  the  study  of  schools,  to 
select  wisely ;  study  of  the  occupation ;  part-time 
experience,  if  advisable ;  and  the  related  preparation  for 
civic,  social,  political,  and  domestic  duties.^ 

Sometimes  vocational  education  will  have  to  be 
obtained  while  the  boy  or  girl  is  working  at  a  blind-alley 
job,  and  here  the  continuation  school  is  important. 
School  systems  apparently  will  have  to  require  continua- 
tion school  opportunities  far  beyond  the  age  of  sixteen, 
for  it  has  been  found  that  the  sixteen-year-old  child  is 
frequently  not  ready  to  decide  on  his  vocation.  Day 
schooling,  whenever  possible,  should  be  allowed  the 
worker ;  and  night  vocational  training  should  be  offered 
to  those  who  cannot  attend  the  day  classes.  The  con- 
tinuation hours  may  be  extended  until  they  are  sufficient 
to  make  the  work  correspond  to  what  we  now  call  part- 
time  schooling,  with  approximately  half  of  each  school 
day  spent  in  school.  If  the  worker  is  in  a  blind-alley 
job,  our  effort  must  be  to  make  his  present  work  efficient 
and  to  prepare  him  to  leave  it  for  something  better; 
if  he  is  in  promising  work,  we  may  make  the  schooling 
supplement  the  occupational  experiences  and  prepare  the 
worker  for  advancement. 

The  school,  too,  should  arrange  for  systematic  vo- 
cational guidance,  so  that  each  boy  or  girl  will  have  the 

*  It  should  be  more  widely  recognized  that  just  as  the  girl  has  to 
make  a  double  preparation,  for  vocation  and  for  home-making,  so  the 
boy  has  certain  things  to  learn  about  his  duty  as  a  successful  life-partner. 

T 


274  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

benefit  of  a  lasting  acquaintance  and  friendship  with  an 
experienced  counselor,  and,  if  possible,  also  with  some 
person  of  experience  and  good  judgment  who  has  already 
succeeded  in  the  vocation  chosen  by  the  student.  The 
counselor  or  coordinator  should  supervise  the  employ- 
ment of  the  children  he  is  guiding,  so  that  he  may  follow 
their  progress  outside  the  school. 

No  part  of  the  training  for  the  vocation  is  of  greater 
importance  than  the  study  of  industrial  and  commercial 
conditions.  This  study  is  likely  to  be  much  more  con- 
crete and  valuable  after  the  boy  or  girl  has  chosen  his 
occupation  than  before.  With  his  vocation  decided 
upon,  sociology,  economics,  commercial  geography, 
business  organization,  industrial  history,  and  community 
civics  take  on  definite  applications.  The  teacher  must 
keep  himself  informed  on  current  events  and  bring  them 
into  his  classes  and  his  vocational  guidance  in  a  way  to 
interest  the  pupils.  Thrift  should  be  discussed,  as 
affording  opportunity  for  advanced  study,  travel,  and 
business  on  one's  own  account.^  Some  of  the  perplexing 
questions  of  our  industrial  and  commercial  life  may 
profitably  be  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  students, 
and  they  may  try  their  powers  at  answering  them. 

The  same  concreteness  may  be  given  other  studies 
after  the  vocation  is  chosen ;  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
Eliot  favors  tentative  choices  at  early  ages.^  Children 
should  be  shown  the  importance  of  abihty  to  talk  well, 

^  See  Prichard  and  Turkington,  Stories  of  Thrift. 
2  See  Readings,  p.  g. 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  275 

and  to  make  freehand  drawings.  History,  literature, 
chemistry,  physics,  languages,  music,  and  art  may  be 
taught  as  aiding  the  vocation  and  as  helping  to  make  a 
well-rounded  life.  The  study  of  family  budgets  may 
give  both  boys  and  girls  good  training  in  domestic 
economy. 

Finally,  the  student  and  club  activities,  the  summer 
camps,  and  the  recreations  will  give  the  young  people 
practice  in  cooperation,  leadership,  and  the  solution  of 
concrete  problems  of  adjustment  to  each  other  and  to  the 
environment.  Without  such  training  the  preparation 
for  the  vocation  would  be  incomplete. 

Guidance  in  Entering  upon  Work.  — We  have  proposed 
(p.  252)  that  the  school  authorities  supervise  the  employ- 
ment of  all  workers  under  the  age  of  twenty-one,  and  that 
employers  be  required  to  notify  the  vocational-guidance 
department  whenever  a  vacancy  is  to  be  filled.  There 
is  no  doubt  but  that  an  adequate  system  of  guidance  must 
make  some  provision  for  the  perplexing  problem  of 
getting  work.  Yet  the  unsatisfactory  features  of  place- 
ment are  many  (pp.  109-114,  250).  It  seems  possible 
that  more  good  would  be  done  if  the  money  now  spent 
in  placing  children  were  expended  in  an  effort  to  keep 
them  in  school  longer.  If  the  school  age  can  be  raised, 
and  if  children  can  be  given  adequate  training  before  the 
time  for  placement  comes,  —  in  knowledge  of  occupa- 
tions, information  about  the  problems  with  which  they 
will  have  to  cope,  and  training  in  effective  speaking,  — 
it  seems  possible  that  the  young  people  might  find  their 


276  THE   VOCATIONAL- GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

own  places.  With  the  registration  of  vacancies  advo- 
cated above,  this  would  not  mean  wandering  the  streets 
looking  for  work,  but  rather  calUng  at  certain  listed 
establishments. 

At  some  time  the  worker  must  learn  to  stand  on  his  own 
feet  in  the  occupational  world,  —  to  make  his  own 
adjustments.  No  system  of  vocational  guidance  should 
delay  the  coming  of  independent  action,  provided  the 
child  is  capable.  Until  the  child  is  better  equipped  for 
seeking  work,  and  until  his  sources  of  information  are 
better,  it  may  be  necessary  for  the  school  system  to 
maintain  a  placement  bureau  or  to  make  placement 
work  incidental  to  vocational  guidance. 

Guidance  in  Progress  and  Promotion.  —  Our  plan  for 
employment  supervision  (or  for  coordinators  in  part- 
time  work)  would  furnish  each  child  with  an  experienced 
friend  as  a  volunteer  helper,  and  with  close  contact  with 
a  vocational  counselor  as  well.  From  these  persons, 
as  well  as  from  his  employer,  he  may  obtain  advice 
and  guidance  about  his  progress  and  promotion  in  the 
occupation. 

The  school  department  must  maintain  many  kinds  of 
classes  for  advanced  training:  evening  classes,  short 
courses,  part-time  work,  extension  courses,  continuation- 
school  work,  factory  and  store  schools,  and  summer  and 
dull-season  courses,  and  these  classes  must  cover  a  wide 
range  of  subjects,  both  academic  and  vocational.  The 
Minneapolis  Survey  report  discusses  the  unsatisfactory 
nature   of  correspondence  courses    (pp.   11 6-1 21),  and 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  277 

the  schools  must  find  a  substitute.  In  Richmond, 
classes  of  workers  were  gathered  together  first,  and  the 
studies  which  were  to  be  offered  were  determined  after- 
ward.^ 

Guidance  in  Change  and  Readjustment.  —  In  Myer's 
monograph  on  the  Problems  of  Vocational  Education  in 
Germany  (p.  ii)  are  pointed  out  the  evils  of  a  system 
in  which  there  is  no  possibility  of  transfer  from  an  un- 
skilled to  a  skilled  occupation.  Ambition  and  hope  are 
cut  off,  and  even  the  continuation-school  work  becomes 
sordid  and  inefficient.  Obviously,  such  a  state  of  affairs 
should  have  no  place  in  a  democratic  commonwealth. 
Aside  from  the  bad  effect  on  the  individual,  it  would 
be  a  source  of  danger  to  the  state. 

Pending  the  time  when  industry  and  commerce  are 
organized  to  provide  for  a  system  of  promotions  through- 
out the  establishment,  the  vocational  guide  or  his  agents, 
the  volunteer  helper  or  employment  supervisor,  must 
aid  the  worker  in  making  whatever  changes  and  read- 
justments seem  beneficial.  The  worker  must  have 
access  to  these  disinterested  sources  of  advice.  If  the 
job  is  a  "  bhnd  "  one,  the  public  and  the  employer  must 
be  taught  to  look  upon  it  as  a  temporary  place,  and 
must  learn  to  encourage  and  facihtate  change.  During 
the  probation  period  at  the  unskilled  trade,  the  employ- 
ment supervisor  should  study  the  boy  or  girl,  making 
inquiries  of  his  employers,  parents,  and  co-workers,  and 
should  keep  a  record  of  all  available  significant  inforraa- 
^  See  1915  Bureau  of  Educ.  Report,  Part.  I,  p.  260. 


278  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

tion.  The  worker,  on  his  part,  must  be  taught  to  give 
satisfaction  in  whatever  position  he  finds  himself,  to 
make  himself  worthy  of  a  change,  to  aid  the  counselor 
and  respond  to  his  help,  to  be  on  the  lookout  for  a  better 
place,  and  to  be  patient  till  a  better  opportunity  comes. 
He  must  be  taught  that  he  should  not  leave  one  place 
until  he  has  another  in  view,  unless  for  good  cause,  and 
that  in  all  his  business  deahngs  he  should  apply  the 
Golden  Rule. 

What  shall  the  vocational  counselor  do  with  the  worker 
who  wants  none  of  his  help  or  advice?  Obviously,  let 
him  alone.  Vocational  guidance  should  never  be  com- 
pulsory ;  if  it  ever  becomes  so  its  chief  value  to  society 
and  to  the  individual  is  gone.  Of  course,  there  are 
certain  minimum  requirements  for  the  child's  schooling, 
working  age,  hours  of  work,  wages,  and  other  laws, 
both  civil  and  criminal ;  these  must  be  enforced.  Aside 
from  these  the  worker  should  be  free  to  solve  his  own 
problems.  In  this  complex  world,  however,  no  one  lives 
to  himself,  and  no  person  can  make  progress  in  his 
occupation  without  the  aid  and  cooperation  of  others. 
The  purpose  of  vocational  guidance  is  but  to  systematize 
and  direct  this  aid  and  cooperation.  The  worker  who 
wishes  to  be  independent  of  this  organized  help  should 
be  allowed  to  have  his  way.  Independence  may 
profitably  be  encouraged ;  a  better  way  may  be 
developed,  or,  if  not,  helpful  lessons  will  be  learned,  even 
through  hard  experiences,  —  lessons  which  might  not  be 
learned  in  any  other  manner. 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  279 

Summary  of  Methods  of  Guidance.  —  The  means  at 
the  disposal  of  the  vocational-guidance  movement  are, 
then,  as  follows :  the  teacher ;  the  trained  counselor ; 
the  volunteer  helper ;  the  coordinator ;  the  employ- 
ment supervisor ;  the  librarian ;  the  employer ;  the 
employment  manager ;  civic  associations ;  labor  unions ; 
employers'  organizations  ;  the  "  vocationalized  "  school 
program ;  the  prevocational  school ;  the  continuation 
and  part-time  plan ;  the  life-career  class ;  the  student 
activities. 

The  method  of  vocational  guidance  concerns  itself  with 
a  school  program  rich  and  varied  enough  to  aid  in  dis- 
covering the  interests  and  powers  of  the  child ;  surveys 
of  occupations ;  the  child's  study  of  occupations  and 
employment  problems;  and  the  advice  and  guidance 
of  a  trained  counselor. 

Training  for  Vocational  Guidance.  Normal  School 
Classes.  —  If  these  methods  are  to  be  followed  by 
teachers  and  others,  and  if  the  efficient  means  are  to  be 
provided,  the  work  must  be  undertaken  by  men  and 
women  who  are  trained  for  it,  and  normal  school  and 
college  courses  must  be  provided  for  aiding  in  the 
training. 

In  the  normal  school  two  courses  may  profitably  be 
given,  to  be  required  during  the  last  two  years  of  the 
school  program.  The  first  course  should  give  the  voca- 
tional-guidance point  of  view,  by  centering  the  atten- 
tion on  a  study  of  the  vocational  possibilities  in  the 
studies  and  other  activities  of  the  elementary  school. 


28o  THE  VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE  MOVEMENT 

One  after  another  each  of  the  various  studies  of  the 
program  may  be  considered,  and  its  content  and  appro- 
priate method  examined  in  relation  to  the  children 
from  the  kindergarten  through  the  eighth  grade.  This 
examination  should  direct  the  attention  of  the  normal 
school  students  to  the  occupations  to  which  the  elemen- 
tary school  studies  should  be  related.  Next  the  pupils' 
activities  should  be  examined  —  athletics,  dramatics, 
excursions,  music,  scouting,  clubs,  camps,  vacation  work, 
pleasures,  and  play  —  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
what  vocational  utiUty  they  possess.  Finally,  the 
elements  in  the  choice  of  high  schools  and  the  reasons 
for  further  training  should  be  considered,  so  that  the 
prospective  teacher  may  aid  the  pupil  in  continuing  his 
education. 

The  work  of  the  second  or  advanced  course  should 
take  up  as  its  central  study  the  problem  of  the  Ufe- 
career  class  in  the  elementary  school,  —  its  content,  aims, 
and  methods.  In  connection  with  the  work  there  should 
be  a  consideration  of  occupational  study  and  of  the  prob- 
lems of  employment  (with  as  much  concrete  observa- 
tion as  seems  possible),  a  study  of  the  means  of  actually 
preparing  for  the  vocation,  and  an  opportunity  for 
experience  in  conducting  Hf  e-career  classes  in  the  practice 
school,  and  in  counseling  individuals,  all  under  super- 
vision and  instruction. 

College  Classes  in  Vocational  Guidance.  —  The  college 
courses  in  vocational  guidance  should  provide  at  least 
for  three  classes  of  persons:    (i)  those  who  expect  to 


A    PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  28 1 

become  high  school  teachers  of  ordinary  subjects,  and 
wish  to  obtain  the  vocational-guidance  point  of  view; 
(2)  those  who  have  had  school  experience,  and  wish  to 
lead  Ufe-career  classes  and  become  vocational  coun- 
selors ;  (3)  those  who  are  or  expect  to  be  supervisors  or 
administrators,  and  wish  to  learn  how  to  foster  the 
vocational-guidance  movement  in  their  schools  or  school 
systems. 

The  first  group  —  prospective  teachers  of  the  various 
high  school  subjects  —  may  follow  a  plan  similar  to  that 
outlined  above  for  the  beginning  class  in  the  normal 
school,  dealing  now,  of  course,  with  high  school  subjects. 
Since  this  group  will  ordinarily  consist  largely  of  college 
seniors  and  graduate  students,  there  may  be  some 
consideration  of  the  problem  of  the  life-career  class  in 
high-school  education  for  the  vocation,  problems  of 
employment,  and  plans  for  cooperation  between  school 
and  occupation. 

The  second  group,  prospective  counselors,  may  prof- 
itably take  the  work  as  outlined  above  for  the  first  group, 
and,  in  an  advanced  course,  may  consider  in  more  detail 
the  various  problems  with  which  vocational  guidance 
must  deal.  Here  each  student  should  select  a  question 
for  his  own  investigation  on  which  he  will  report  from 
time  to  time,  and  the  class  work  should  supplement  these 
topics  so  that  the  members  o!  the  group  will  gain  a  view 
of  most  of  the  important  problems  in  the  field.  Observa- 
tion visits  should  be  arranged,  and,  if  possible,  actual 
participation  in  guidance. 


282  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

For  the  third  group,  supervisors  and  administrators, 
there  should  be  provided  a  general  course  which  will 
consider  many  of  the  topics  of  the  other  two  courses 
but  will  especially  take  up  the  question  of  organizing 
the  work  of  guidance.  Thus,  the  question  of  educational 
guidance  should  be  discussed,  together  with  a  general 
survey  of  the  methods  used  in  various  school  systems  for 
arranging  for  and  financing  vocational  guidance,  and 
the  methods  of  counseling  used.  Observational  visits, 
participation  in  guidance,  and  the  individual  study  of 
problems  may  form  part  of  the  work  of  the  course. 

The  Equipment  of  the  Vocational  Counselor.  — 
Students  in  any  of  these  normal-school  or  college  courses 
who  manifest  a  purpose  to  choose  vocational  counseling 
or  related  work  in  guidance  as  their  hfe-careers,  should 
of  course  be  given  special  attention  by  the  instructor. 
Early  in  the  course  a  study  should  be  made  of  the  present 
equipment  of  each  of  such  students  :  his  schooHng ;  the 
breadth  of  his  experience  in  teaching ;  his  knowledge  of 
the  various  studies  of  the  school  program ;  his  interest 
in  and  connection  with  the  play  and  games  of  pupils; 
the  scope  and  intensity  of  his  experience  in  the  occu- 
pations ;  his  knowledge  of  ways  and  means  of  finding 
points  of  contact  with  commerce  and  industry ;  his 
grasp  of  sociology  and  economics ;  his  abihty  to  use 
statistical  methods ;  his  power  to  make  investigations 
on  his  own  account ;  his  abihty  to  cooperate  with 
people ;  his  purposes  in  going  into  the  work  of  voca- 
tional guidance ;   and  his  conceptions  of  the  duties  and 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUIDANCE  283 

opportunities  of  the  work.  The  study  in  the  university 
course  should  then  be  made  to  supplement  this  pre- 
liminary equipment. 

Breadth  of  equipment  is  important,  for  the  counselor 
must  meet,  understand,  be  understood  by,  and  confer 
successfully  with  the  employment  manager,  the  mer- 
chant, the  manufacturer,  the  shop  superintendent,  the 
labor  union  agent,  the  worker,  the  legislator,  the  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  the  principal,  the  teacher,  the  parent, 
and,  very  likely,  groups  of  any  or  all  of  these  persons 
assembled  in  meetings.  It  is  particularly  important, 
therefore,  that  the  training  course  should  somehow  bring 
the  student  into  contact  with  the  kinds  of  persons 
with  whom  he  will  have  to  deal  in  his  work. 

Summary  of  the  Program  of  Vocational  Guidance.  — 
We  may  here  set  forth  in  summary  form  the  requirements 
in  an  adequate  program  of  vocational  guidance  somewhat 
as  follows : 

1.  A  school  organization  and  program  broad,  varied,  and 
flexible  enough  to  be  fairly  representative  of  all  the  activities 
of  life,  and  intensive  enough  to  test  the  powers  of  the  pupil 
and  discover  to  himself  and  to  others  his  special  inclinations 
and  abilities. 

2.  A  course  of  study,  in  every  subject,  which  relates 
itself  whenever  possible  to  the  vocational  needs  of  the  pupil?. 

3.  A  life-career  class  in  every  school  grade  (from  the 
fourth  up)  and  in  college,  studying  the  opportunity  furnished 
by  education,  the  requirements  and  opportunities  of  the 
occupations,  and  the  economic  and  social  problems  of  em- 
ployment. 


284  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEAIENT 

4.  Individual  counsel  for  every  child,  as  often  as  may 
seem  appropriate.^  Record  cards  and  conferences  with 
parents  and  others  would  make  the  work  of  counseling  more 
efficient. 

5.  The  organization,  under  one  officer  responsible  di- 
rectly to  the  superintendent  of  schools,  of  all  the  vocational- 
guidance  activities  of  the  schools. 

6.  Cooperation  of  school  and  other  agencies,  local,  state, 
and  national,  for  the  collection  and  dissemination  of  occupa- 
tional information. 

7.  The  supervision,  by  school  authorities,  and  under 
the  direction  of  the  vocational-guidance  department,  of  the 
employment  of  all  workers  under  twenty-one  years  of  age, 
with  liberal  opportunity  for  part-time  work. 

8.  Adequate  vocational  training,  both  for  pupils  in 
school  and  for  persons  at  work. 

9.  The  progressive  improvement  of  commerce  and  in- 
dustry, by 

(a)  The  elimination  of  young  workers  from  full-time  employment. 

(b)  Employment  supervision,  through  employment  managers 
cooperating  with  school  agents. 

(c)  Better  methods  of  obtaining  work. 

(d)  Graded  systems  of  promotion,  all  furnishing  prospect  of 
satisfactory  careers  in  the  occupations. 

(e)  Relief  from  long  hours,  enervating  tasks,  dangerous  work, 
and  low  wages. 

(/)  Opportunity  to  obtain  the  use  of  idle  land  and  unused  or 
exploited  natural  resources. 

(g)  Well-considered  progress  toward  a  more  democratic  ad- 
ministration of  those  affairs  in  industry  and  commerce  which 

^  It  is  difficult  to  set  up  a  rule  here,  but  it  would  seem  that  a  friendly 
conversation  each  half-year,  to  discuss  plans,  progress,  schooling,  play, 
and  vocational  hopes,  might  be  proposed  as  a  minimum  for  counseling 
each  child  in  the  upper  grades. 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL   GUmANCE  285 

concern  the  welfare  of  the  workers,  with  preliminary  training  of 
the  workers  for  assuming  such  responsibilities. 

10.  Preparation  of  men  and  women  for  the  work  of 
vocational  guidance. 

11.  A  legislative  program,  permissive  at  first,  if  it  seems 
best,  to  bring  into  effect  the  above  requirements,  whenever 
better  laws  will  aid. 

Some  Appropriate  Next  Steps.  —  The  above  program 
may  seem  rather  formidable  ;  therefore  we  shall  consider 
here  some  lesser  steps  which  may  be  taken  to  further 
the  work  of  vocational  guidance,  —  steps  which  seem 
appropriate,  practicable,  and  every  way  desirable.  For 
convenience  we  shall  set  these  also  in  simimary  form : 

1.  A  systematic  attempt,  through  reading  circles,  talks, 
lectures,  discussions,  and  extension  courses,  to  interest  the 
teachers  in  developing  the  vocational  values  in  the  school 
studies,  and  in  counseling  individuals  about  their  vocational 
opportunities. 

2.  Differentiation  of  school  program  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades,  by  the  introduction  of  a  variety  of  prevoca- 
tional  work. 

3.  The  further  development  of  the  many  present  plans 
and  practices  for  vocational  education. 

4.  Cooperation  between  school  and  employers  for  the 
extension  of  the  half-time  or  part-time  principle. 

5.  The  appointment  and  training  of  selected  teachers  for 
special  work  in  investigation  and  counseling,  and  the  assign- 
ment to  them  of  time  to  do  the  work. 

6.  In  lieu  of  a  full  course  in  life-careers,  the  undertaking 
of  such  work  in  the  classes  in  composition,  oral  English, 
geography,  civics,  etc. 


286  THE   VOCATIONAL-GUIDANCE   MOVEMENT 

7.  The  organization  of  a  committee  of  counselors,  with 
an  elected  or  appointed  chairman,  to  supervise  and  systema- 
tize the  work,  and  to  collect  and  disseminate  information. 

8.  An  investigation  of  the  causes  of  leaving  school,  and 
of  the  working  experiences  of  those  who  have  recently  left. 

9.  An  attempt,  in  normal  school  and  college  courses, 
either  in  general  education  classes  or  in  vocational-guidance 
classes,  to  show  to  all  prospective  teachers  the  vocational 
possibilities  in  the  school  program,  and  to  ofEer  training  for 
vocational  guidance. 

10.  The  study,  on  the  part  of  teachers,  of  the  problems 
and  conditions  of  employment. 

11.  Experiments,  by  city,  state,  and  federal  departments, 
in  preparing  workers  for  democratic  management  of  such 
institutions  as  the  post  ofhce,  the  forestry  service,  and  schools, 
for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  similar  experiments  in  industry 
and  commerce. 

12.  Legislation  to  cover  the  following  points: 

(a)  The  setting  aside  of  definite  funds  for  extending  the  work 
of  vocational  guidance. 

{b)  Raising  the  school  age  for  full-time  schooling,  and  for  part- 
time  schooling  for  wage  earners. 

(c)  Giving  to  the  school  the  responsibillity  for  the  supervision 
of  all  children  up  to  the  age  of  eighteen,  whether  working  or  not. 

(d)  Establishment  of  public  employment  agencies  and  labor 
exchanges. 

Conclusion.  —  If  we  consider  the  progress  that  has 
been  made  in  school  and  in  occupation  during  the  past 
decade,  during  the  life  of  the  modern  vocational-guidance 
movement,  it  will  not  seem  much  to  set  ourselves  to  the 
accomplishment  of  this  program.  Enlightenment  almost 
of  itself  brings  progress,  and  the  critical  knowledge  of 


A   PROGRAM   FOR   VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  287 

school  and  occupation  which  has  recently  come  to 
teachers  and  others  through  this  movement  for  the  con- 
servation of  the  careers  of  the  children  is  certain  to  lead 
to  the  greater  usefulness  of  the  school  and  to  more 
satisfactory  conditions  in  employment. 

The  teacher  and  the  counselor  are  directly  concerned, 
of  course,  with  making  the  best  attempt  they  can  to 
guide  the  individual  boy  or  girl  through  the  school  and 
into  his  chosen  occupation.  In  this  process,  however, 
we  see  that  our  work  is  not  as  effective  as  it  might  be  if 
schools  and  industrial  and  commercial  conditions  were 
improved.  Vocational  guidance  is  indeed  occupied  with 
aiding  the  individual  to  make  the  most  of  his  powers; 
but  this  we  find  we  cannot  do  without  better  schools  and 
better  work.  The  welfare  of  the  individual  citizen 
and  of  the  state  demands  the  progressive  reaUzation  of 
these  hopes. 


APPENDIX   I 

SPECIAL   GLOSSARY 

Blind  Alley :  A  job  or  occupation  which  offers  little  opportunity 
for  growth  in  skill  or  knowledge,  advancement,  or  extension 
of  usefulness  with  consequent  increase  of  earning  power  and 
which  does  not  usually  lead  to  a  better  occupation. 

Commercial  Occupation:  A  calling  which  is  concerned  with  busi- 
ness or  mercantile  affairs.  Usually  includes  clerical  occu- 
pations as  well,  and  sometimes  the  callings  connected  with 
transportation. 

Continuation  School :  A  school  for  adolescents  or  others  at  work, 
in  which  they  may  have  day  instruction,  during  working 
hours,  either  upon  the  work  they  are  doing  or  upon  matters 
of  general  value.  See  Schneider,  p.  57 ;  also  cooperative 
schooling,  below. 

Cooperative  Schooling :  A  plan  in  which  the  time  of  the  individual 
pupil  is  divided  between  shop  or  store  and  school ;  e.g.  workers 
paired  so  that  they  alternate,  one  having  a  week  in  school 
while  the  other  is  at  work.  School  and  employer  cooperate 
in  the  agreements.  Same  as  part-time  schooling.  See 
Schneider,  p.  55. 

Coordinators :  Officers  in  the  cooperative  system,  who  see  that 
the  school  work  is  related  to  the  shop  work,  and  that  the 
instruction  and  progress  in  the  shop  are  satisfactory. 

Democratic  Management:  Yet  to  be  defmed.  Progress  toward 
a  more  democratic  management  is  made  whenever  the  knowl- 
edge and  point  of  view  of  the  employees  is  used  in  helping 
to  determine  the  policies  or  management  of  the  estabhshment. 

Dexterity:  Skill  of  a  simple  kind  ;  an  ability  to  perform  a  process 
which  may  be  learned  in  a  relatively  short  time. 

Differentiation:   Variety  of  curricula  for  different  pupils, 
u  289 


290  APPENDIX   I 


/ 


Educational  Guidance:  Information,  advice,  or  cooperation 
relating  to  growth  and  mental  development.  WTien  it  con- 
cerns the  occupations  it  is  vocational  guidance  as  well. 

Employment  Manager:  An  officer  in  an  establishment  who  has 
charge  of  the  hiring,  training,  transfer,  discharge,  and  (often) 
general  welfare  of  employees. 

Employment  Supervision:  The  oversight,  with  or  without  author- 
ity, of  the  occupational  experiences  of  workers.  As  used  in 
vocational  guidance,  employment  supervision  is  taken  to 
mean  supervision  and  advice  by  school  officers. 

Follow-Up :  An  investigation  of  the  employment  experiences  of 
those  who  have  left  school  to  go  to  work.  Follow-up  is  the 
first  step  toward  employment  supervision  by  the  school. 

Industrial  Education:  Training  for  an  industrial  occupation. 
See  below. 

Industrial  Occupation:  A  caUing  which  requires,  among  other 
things,  manual  or  mechanical  exercise,  dexterity,  or  skill. 
Often  used  to  include  farming.  Should  not  be  used  to  in- 
clude commercial  or  professional  occupations. 

Industrial  Survey:  An  occupational  survey  (see  below),  restricted 
to  the  industrial  callings.  (Often  loosely  used  to  include  all 
occupations.) 

Intermediate  School:    See  junior  high  school. 

Job:  The  particular  position  held  by  a  worker  at  any  given 
time ;  the  set  of  duties  assigned  to  him  by  the  estabUshment 
for  which  he  works. 

Junior  High  School:  Usually  a  separate  school  comprising  the 
7th,  8th,  and  9th  (first  year  of  high  school)  grades,  with  dif- 
ferentiated courses,  high  school  methods,  and  varied  activ- 
ities. The  junior  high  school  will  ordinarily  ofiFer  prevoca- 
tional  work  (see  below). 

Life-Career:  The  occupation  of  a  person;  that  which  offers 
him  opportunity  for  progress  and  satisfaction  in  his  work. 

Life-Career  Class :  A  school  group  for  the  study  of  occupational 
opportunities  and  problems. 

Occupation :  The  kind  of  work  one  is  engaged  in  doing ;  the  voca- 
tion ;  the  caUing. 


GLOSSARY  291 

Occupational  Survey:  A  systematic  investigation  to  determine 
the  kinds  of  work  and  the  conditions  of  work  in  a  given  com- 
munity. Usually  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what  kind  of 
vocational  education  should  be  offered.    A  vocational  survey. 

Part-Time  School :    Continuation  or  cooperative  schooling. 

Placement :    Finding  employment  for  an  individual. 

Prevocational  Work:  School  work  which  is  designed  to  precede 
actual  training  for  an  occupation.  Usually  applied  to  manual 
or  mechanical  exercises  in  the  school  program,  though  all 
the  school  program  of  a  junior  high  school  may  properly  be 
called  prevocational.  Good  prevocational  work  provides 
for  experimentation  with  many  kinds  of  activities.  See 
Schneider,  p.  49. 

Profession :  An  occupation  requiring  long  preparation,  involving 
a  high  degree  of  education,  and  having  certain  aims  or  stand- 
ards of  ability  and  of  conduct. 

Program  of  Studies:  The  entire  range  of  subjects  offered  by  a 
school  or  school  system. 

Skilled  Occupation :  A  mechanical  calling  requiring  a  more  or 
less  extended  training  in  preparation. 

Technical  School:  A  school  which  trains  for  an  industrial  occu- 
pation. 

Trade  School:  A  school  preparing  for  industrial  occupations, 
in  which  the  mechanical  processes  are  taught  in  the  school 
instead  of  in  the  commercial  shop. 

Vocation :  A  calling  or  occupation. 

Vocational  Education :   Training  which  prepares  for  the  calling. 

Vocational  Guidance:  A  systematic  effort,  based  on  knowledge 
of  the  occupations  and  on  personal  acquaintance  with  and 
study  of  the  individual,  to  inform,  advise,  or  cooperate  with 
a  person  in  choosing,  preparing  for,  entering  upon,  or  making 
progress  in  his  occupation. 

Vocational-Guidance  Class :  A  group  of  persons  engaged  in  a  study 
of  the  principles,  methods,  or  problems  of  vocational  guidance. 

Vocational-Guidance  Survey:  An  investigation  for  the  purpose 
of  recommending  plans  for  adequate  vocational  guidance. 

Vocational  Survey :  An  occupational  survey. 


/ 


APPENDIX   II 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Note.  —  This  list  includes  only  the  list  of  works  consulted  or  used 
for  reference.  For  a  review  of  the  important  literature  see  A  Selected 
Critical  Bibliography  of  Vocational  Guidance.  Brewer,  John  M.,  and 
Kelly,  Roy  Willmarth.     Harvard  University  Press,  191 7. 

Alden,  George  I.  A  Plan  for  Better  Education  of  Boys  and  Girls  who 
Leave  the  Grammar  School  to  Seek  Employment  in  the  Unskilled 
hidustries.  Read  before  the  Worcester  (Mass.)  Education 
Association,  1913. 

Alderman,  L.  R.  School  Credit  for  Home  Work.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Co.,  1915. 

Alexander,  Magnus  W.  Waste  in  Hiring  and  Discharging  Em- 
ployees. Scientific  American  Supplement,  No.  2041,  Feb.  13, 
1915,  pp.  102-103.    Also  in  American  Academy;  see  below. 

Allen,  Frederick  J.  Business  Employments.  Ginn  and  Company, 
1916. 

.     The  Law  as  a  Vocation.    The  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston, 

1913- 
.     The  Shoe  Industry.     The  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston,  1916. 

American  Academy  of  PoUtical  and  Social  Science.  Personnel  and 
Employment  Problems  in  Industrial  Management.  Annals  of 
the  Academy,  Vol.  LXV,  No.  154,  1916.  Editors,  Meyer 
Bloomfield  and  Joseph  H.  Willits. 

Angell,  James  R.  The  Doctrine  of  Formal  Discipline  in  the  Light 
of  the  Principles  of  General  Psychology.  Educational  Review, 
Vol.  36,  No.  I,  June,  1908,  pp.  1-14. 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Constant  and  Variable  Occupations  and  their 
Bearing  on  Problems  of  Vocational  Education.  The  Division 
of  Education  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  No.  E136,  1914. 
Bloomfield's  Readings,  pp.  141-149. 

292 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  293 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Laggards  in  Our  Schools.  The  Charities 
Publication  Committee,  1909. 

.     Psychological  Tests  in  Vocational  Guidance.    In  Bureau  of 

Education  Bulletin,  1914,  No.  14,  Vocational  Guidance, 
pp.  33-37.  Also  Bulletin  No.  E128  of  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation.  Also  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 
Vol.  IV,  No.  4,  April,  1913,  pp.  232-237. 

.  Some  Conditions  Affecting  Problems  of  Vocational  Educa- 
tion in  78  American  School  Systems.  Bulletin  No.  E135  of 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1914.  Bloomfield's  Readings, 
pp.  150-171. 

Bagley,  W.  C.  The  Educative  Process.  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1912. 

Barnard,  J.  Lynn,  and  others.  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics. 
Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  191 5,  No.  23. 

Bartlett,  L.  W.  Vocational  Guidance  in  Pomona  City  Schools. 
Pomona  (Cal.)  School  District,  1917. 

Bate,  William  G.  An  Experiment  in  Teaching  a  Course  in  Ele- 
mentary Sociology.  The  School  Review,  Vol.  23,  No.  5, 
May,  191 5,  pp.  331-340. 

.     Vocational  Guidance  in  a  Small  City.    American  School 

Board  Journal,  Vol.  51,  No.  2,  Aug.  1915,  pp.  11-12. 

Bawden,  WiUiam  T.  Vocational  Education.  Being  Chapter  IX 
of  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  United 
States,  1915,  Vol.  I,  pp.  221-278. 

Bloomfield,  Meyer.  The  New  Profession  of  Handling  Men. 
Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Pohtical  and  Social 
Science,  191 5,  PubUcation  No.  928,  p.  6. 

(ed.).  Readings  in  Vocational  Guidance.  Ginn  and  Com- 
pany, 191 5. 

.     The  School  and  the  Start  in  Life.     Bureau  of  Education 

Bulletin,  1914,  No.  4. 

.     Training    Men   in   the   Art    of  Employing   Others.     The 

Nation's  Business,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  8,  Aug.  15,  191 5,  p.  6.  (Re- 
viewed in  The  Literary  Digest,  Oct.  9,  1915.) 

.  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth.  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, 1911.     Introduction  by  Paul  H.  Hanus. 


294  APPENDIX  II 

Bloomfield,  Meyer.  Youth,  School,  and  Vocation.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  191 5.     Introduction  by  Henry  Suzzallo. 

Blumenthal,  Gustave  A.  Vocational  Analysis.  In  Some  Aspects 
of  Vocational  Guidance,  Central  Committee  on  Vocational 
Guidance,  New  York  City,  191 2,  pp.  14-18. 

Bolton,  Frederick  E.  Curricula  in  University  Departments  of 
Education.  School  and  Society,  Vol.  II,  No.  50,  Dec.  11, 
1915,  pp.  829-841. 

Bonser,  Frederick  G.  Is  " Prevocational"  a  Needed  or  Desirable 
Term?  Manual  Training  and  Vocational  Education,  Vol. 
XVII,  No.  8,  April,  1916,  pp.  585-588. 

.  Necessity  of  Professional  Training  for  Vocational  Counsel- 
ing. In  Vocational  Guidance,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin, 
1914,  No.  14,  pp.  37-42.  Also  in  Bloomfield's  Readings, 
pp.  109-116. 

.  The  Curriculum  as  a  Means  of  Revealing  Vocational  Apti- 
tudes.    Education,  Vol.  XXXVII,  No.  3,  Nov.  1916,  pp.  145- 

159- 
Boston  School  Committee.     Annual  Report.     School  Document 

No.  10,  1912. 
.     Circular  of  Information  Relating  to  the  Continuation  Schools, 

No.  26,  191 5. 
Boston    Masters'    Association.     Brief   of   Papers  on  Vocational 

Guidance,  191 2.     In  Bloomfield's  Readings,  pp.  11 7-1 28. 
Boy  Scouts  of  America.     Handbook  for  Boys.     New  York  City, 

Doubleday,  Page  and  Company. 
Breckenridge,   Sophonisba   P.     Guidance   by  the  Development   of 

Placement  and  Follow-up  Work.     In  Vocational   Guidance, 

Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1914,  No.  14,  pp.  59-64. 
.  and  Abbott,   Edith.     The  School  and  the  Working  Child. 

Report  to  Woman's  Club,  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae 

and  Woman's  City  Club,  of  Chicago,  1913.    In  Bloomfield's 

Readings,  pp.  485-503. 
Breese,  B.  B.     Vocational  Guidance.     Unpopular  Review,  Vol.  V, 

No.  8,  Oct.-Dec.  191 5,  pp.  343-357- 
Brewer,   John   M.     A    Broader    View    of   Vocational    Guidance. 

School  and  Society,  Vol.  V,  No.  128,  June  9, 1917,  pp.  661-668. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  295 

Brewer,  John  M.  Vocational  Guidance  in  School  and  Occupation. 
Am.  Acad,  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Annals,  New  Pos- 
sibilities in  Education,  Vol.  LXVII,  No.  156,  Sept.  1916,  pp. 

54-63- 
Briggs,  Thomas  H.     Secondary  Education.     In  Commissioner  of 

Education,  U.  S.,  Report,  1914,  Part  I,  pp.  127-157. 

Brooks,  Stratton  D.  Vocational  Guidance  in  the  Boston  Schools. 
The  School  Review,  Vol.  19,  No.  i,  Jan.  1911,  pp.  42-50. 
Also  in  Bloomfield's  Readings,  pp.  83-91. 

Bureau  of  the  Census.     Index  to  Occupations.     191 5. 

Bureau  of  Education.  Commissioner  of  Education,  U.  S.,  Annual 
Reports  1914  and  191 5. 

.     Vocational    Guidance.      Bulletin,    1914,    No.     14.      The 

Papers  Presented  at  the  Organization  Meeting  of  The  Voca- 
tional Guidance  Association,  Grand  Rapids,  Oct.  1913. 
(See  Ayres,  Bonser,  Breckenridge,  Fletcher,  Giles,  Leavitt, 
Lovejoy,  Martin,  Mead,  Richards,  Roberts,  Woolley.) 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  Vocational  Education  Survey  of  Rich- 
mond, Va.     Bulletin  Whole  No.  162,  Misc.  Series  No.  7,  1916. 

Burk,  Frederic.  In  Re  Everychild,  a  Minor,  vs.  Lockstep  Schooling. 
Monograph  C,  San  Francisco  State  Normal  School,  19x5. 

Burris,  William  P.  The  Public  School  System  of  Gary,  Indiana. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1914,  No.  18. 

Cabot,  Ella  Lyman.  Volunteer  Help  to  the  Schools.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  1914. 

California  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  Sixteenth  Biennial  Report. 
1913-1914,  State  Printing  Office,  1914. 

Campfire  Girls'  National  Headquarters.  The  Book  of  the  Camp- 
fire  Girls. 

Central  Committee  on  Vocational  Guidance.  Some  Aspects  of 
Vocational  Guidance.     191 2,  New  York  City. 

Chamberlain,   Jas.    F.      The  Occupations   of  Man.     New  York 

Teachers'  Monograph,  June,  1903. 
Chicago  Board  of  Education.    Sixtieth  Annual  Report,  for  the 

year  ending  June  30,  1914. 
Civil  Service  Commission  of  the  United  States.    Manual  of  Ex- 
aminations, for  the  Spring  of  1916. 


296  APPENDIX  II 

Claxton,  Philander  P.  Part-time  Secondary  Schooling  and  Voca- 
tional Guidance.  Nat.  Voc.  Guidance  Assn.,  Proc.  1914, 
pp.  44-48. 
Cleveland  Educational  Survey.  Nine  volumes  on  vocational 
education.  Division  of  Education,  Russell  Sage  Foundation, 
Auspices  The  Survey  Committee  of  the  Cleveland  Foundation, 
1916. 

The  following  volumes  relate  to  vocational  education,  and 
thus,  indirectly,  to  vocational  guidance : 
Bryner,  Edna.    Dressmaking  and  Millinery. 

.     The  Garment  Trades. 

Fleming,  Ralph  D.     Railroad  and  Street  Transportation. 
Lutz,  R.  R.     The  Metal  Trades. 

.     Wage  Earning  and  Education. 

O'Leary,  Iris  P.     Department  Store  Occupations. 
Shaw,  Frank  P.     The  Building  Trades. 

.     The  Printing  Trades. 

Stevens,     Bertha.      Boys     and     Girls     in     Commercial 

Work. 

Clopper,  Edward  N.,  and  Hine,  Lewis  W.    Child  Labor  in  the 

Sugar-Beet  Fields  of  Colorado.     The  Child  Labor  Bulletin, 

Vol.  4,  No.  4,  Feb.  1916,  Part  I,  pp.  176-206. 

Cole,  Percival  R.    Industrial  Education  in  the  Elementary  School. 

Houghton  MifHin  Company,  1914. 
Collet,  Miss.    Two  reports  on  juvenile  labor  in  London,  —  ready- 
made  women's   clothing,   and  bookbinding  and   stationery 
trades,  191 1  and  191 2.     See  Bloomfield's  Readings,  pp.  647- 
665  and  666-678. 
Colleton.     See  Boston  Masters'  Association. 
Coman,   Katherine.     Unemployment,  a  World  Problem,  and  the 
Congress  at  Ghent.     The  Survey,  Vol.  XXXI,  No.  22,  Feb.  28, 
1914,  pp.  667-669. 
Commission  on  Industrial  Relations,  United  States.    Final  Report. 

1915- 
Davis,  Anne  S.     A  Brief  Statement  of  the  Work  of  the  Vocational 
Bureau  and  the  Joint  Committee  for  Vocational  Supervision. 
Nat.  Voc.  Guid.  Assn.,  Proc.  1914,  pp.  51-56. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  297 

Davis,  Anne  S.  Occupations  atid  hiduslries  Open  to  Children  between 
Fourteen  and  Sixteen  Years  of  Age.  Pamphlet  published  by 
the  Board  of  Education,  Chicago,  1914.  Also  in  Bloomfield's 
Readings,  pp.  542-556. 

.     See  Bureau  of  Education,  Vocational  Guidance,  Bulletin 

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Davis,  Jesse  B.  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance.  Ginn  and 
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.    Streetlaiid.     Small,  Maynard  and  Company,  191 5. 

Dearborn,  Walter  F.  Experimental  Education.  The  School 
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Dewey,  John.  The  Need  of  an  Industrial  Education  in  an  Indus- 
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298  APPENDIX  n 

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Feiss,  Richard  A.  Personal  Relationship  as  a  Basis  of  Scientific 
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FUene,  A.  Lincoln.  The  Relation  of  Vocational  Guidance  to  the 
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Fitch,  John  A.  A  Method  for  Industrial  Surveys.  Nat.  Confer- 
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Fletcher,  Alfred  P.  Guidance  by  Means  of  a  System  of  Differen- 
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Bureau  of  Educ.  Bulletin,  1914,  No.  14,  pp.  48-52. 

Fullerton,  Hugh  S.  Getting  and  Holding  a  Job.  American  Maga- 
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Gantt,  H.  L.    Industrial  Leadership.     Yale  Press,  1916. 

Garnett,  J.  C.  Maxwell.  Education  and  Industry.  School  and 
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Gayler,  G.  W.  Vocational  Direction  of  Pupils  in  the  Eletnentary 
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Harper,  Jane  R.  A  Survey  of  Opportunities  for  Vocational  Edu^a- 
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Haynes,  John.  Economics  in  the  High  School.  Houghton  Mifflin 
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Healy,  William.  The  Individual  Delinquent.  Little,  Brown  and 
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Heck,  W.  H.  Mental  Discipline  and  Educational  Values.  John 
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Hicks,  Warren  E.     See  Wisconsin. 

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Hollingworth,  H.  L.  Specialized  Vocational  Tests  atid  Methods. 
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Intercollegiate  Bureau  of  Occupations.  Opportunities  in  Occupa- 
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Jacobs,  Charles  L.  An  Experiment  in  High  School  Vocational 
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Pritchard,  Myron  T.,  and  Turkington,  Grace  A.  Stories  of  Thrift 
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1912,  Proc,  pp.  27-30. 
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Woolman,  Mrs.  Mary  Schenck.     Investigations,  the  Need  and  Value. 

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Wright,   F.  W.     Bridging  the  Gap  —  The  Transfer  Class.    The 

Harvard-Newton  Bulletins,  Harvard  University  Press,  1915. 


APPENDIX   III 

PROBLEMS  AND   QUESTIONS 

Chapter  I :  Problems  of  Vocational  Guidance 

1.  Do  you  think  that  cultural  or  moral  ideals  are  likely  to  be 
neglected  if  the  child  begins  to  think  about  his  vocational  future? 
Give  reasons. 

2.  Justify  or  refute  the  statement  of  a  recent  commencement 
orator,  that  the  purpose  of  the  high  school  is  to  keep  boys  and 
girls  from  thinking  about  making  a  living. 

3.  Criticise  the  statement,  attributed  to  a  college  dean,  that 
when  a  student  begins  to  select  courses  with  his  future  occupation 
in  mind,  at  that  moment  his  education  ends. 

4.  Discuss  the  difference  between  education  and  training, 
with  illustrations.     Do  they  work  together,  or  separately  ? 

5.  If  vocational  guidance  is  so  much  needed,  how  do  you 
account  for  the  indifference  of  teachers,  principals,  and  superin- 
tendents ? 

6.  Draw  up  a  statement  to  show  the  need  for  vocational 
guidance  in  your  community.  Make  it  concrete  and  compre- 
hensive. Direct  it  at  one  of  the  following :  your  principal ;  your 
superintendent  of  schools;  the  board  of  education;  a  teachers' 
association ;  a  women's  club ;  a  chamber  of  commerce  or  board 
of  trade ;  a  labor  union ;  a  legislative  body. 

7.  What  methods  can  you  propose  for  doing  away  with  the 
erroneous  guidance  of  magazine  advertisements  ? 

8.  Interview  a  person  of  educational,  industrial,  or  commer- 
cial importance,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out  his  attitude  toward 
vocational  guidance.    Report  the  result  to  the  class. 

9.  How  do  you  think  it  has  happened  that  the  act  of  place- 
ment seems  to  some  persons  to  express  the  chief  function  of  the 
vocational-guidance  movement  ? 

310 


PROBLEMS    AND   QUESTIONS  3II 

10.  Show  how  placement,  if  well  done,  would  inevitably  lead 
to  other  activities  in  guidance. 

11.  Can  you  see  any  objection  to  the  statement  that  the  kernel 
of  truth  in  the  vocational-guidance  movement  is  vocational  edu- 
cation? What  would  be  the  dangers  involved  in  vocational 
education  without  vocational  guidance? 

12.  Do  you  indorse  Van  Sickle's  statement  on  page  14  ?  Would 
vocational  guidance  in  a  school  endanger  the  cultural  studies? 
If  so,  how  may  this  difficulty  be  avoided? 

13.  Certain  other  names  have  been  suggested,  to  take  the  place 
of  vocational  guidance.  Study  the  expressions  here  given,  using  the 
dictionary,  and  reach  a  conclusion  which  satisfies  you.  Be  prepared 
to  criticise  each  suggested  name,  and  to  defend  your  preference. 

Occupational  guidance. 
Occupational  direction. 
Vocational  direction. 
Vocational  enlightenment. 
Vocational  help. 

Educational  and  vocational  guidance. 
Vocational  and  moral  guidance. 
Life-career  direction. 
Occupational  information. 
Have  you  other  names  to  propose  ? 

Chapter  II :   Beginnings 

1.  Why  is  it  that  so  many  attempts  are  made  to  choose  voca- 
tions by  occult  and  short-cut  methods?  Do  you  see  any  hope 
in  such  methods?    Why? 

2.  Study  Parsons'  book  to  find  his  references  to  psycholog>'. 
Are  his  statements  justified?  Have  the  hopes  he  expresses  been 
realized  ?    Has  progress  been  made  ? 

3.  Study  the  "cases"  described  by  Parsons.  What  do  you 
think  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  method? 
Propose  amendments  to  the  plan,  to  make  it  more  satisfactory. 

4.  In  view  of  the  activities  of  the  Vocation  Bureau  of  Boston, 
what  other  hnes  of  work  might  be  undertaken  by  such  an  insti- 
tution? 


312  APPENDIX  m 

5.  Do  you  think  the  Boston  plan  is  best,  the  high  schools 
being  more  or  less  independent  from  the  central  office  in  their 
vocational-guidance  work?  Write  a  defense  of  the  Boston  plan, 
or  propose  a  plan  for  cooperation. 

6.  In  view  of  the  plans  outUned  in  this  chapter,  draw  up  a 
brief  set  of  specifications  for  starting  systematic  work  in  guidance 
in  your  school  or  school  system. 

7.  If  it  were  necessary  to  concentrate  time,  energy,  and 
money  on  one  phase  of  vocational-guidance  work,  what  do  you 
think  should  be  the  kind  of  work  selected  ? 

8.  Write  to  one  of  the  cities  or  institutions  mentioned  as 
carrying  on  activity  in  gmdance,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out 
about  the  latest  developments  in  the  work. 

9.  What  are  the  advantages  of  volimtary  as  against  paid  work 
in  vocational  guidance,  on  the  part  of  teachers  ? 

10.  Make  a  statement  giving  the  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  vocational  guidance  offered  by  Christian  Associations 
and  churches. 

11.  Interview  secretaries  of  associations  or  pastors  of  churches, 
to  find  out  what  work  in  vocational  guidance  they  are  doing. 
Find  out  if  they  have  any  criticisms  of  the  school's  effort  to  guide 
pupils.     Give  your  report  in  class. 

12.  Investigate  and  report  to  class  on  the  readjustments  and 
guidance  made  necessary  on  account  of  the  European  War. 

Chapter  III :   Guidance  through  Education 

1.  Give  instances  to  show  the  superior  importance  of  educa- 
tional guidance.  Is  this  true  for  all  children,  or  only  for  those 
likely  to  go  into  the  professions  ? 

2.  What  moral  quaUties  does  the  child  develop  through  play 
and  in  the  kindergarten  ?     Give  concrete  examples. 

3.  Visit  a  museum  in  your  vicinity  and  note  whether  it  ap- 
peals merely  to  the  sense  of  the  curious,  or  whether  it  also  aids 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  common  problems  of  fife. 

4.  Draw  up  a  program  of  studies  for  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade, 
with  vocational  guidance  in  mind. 


PROBLEMS   AND   QUESTIONS  313 

5.  Show  how  geography,  reading,  or  drawing  can  be  used  to 
give  vocational  enlightenment. 

6.  Make  out  a  tentative  scheme  for  the  studies  of  the  junior 
high  school  age. 

7.  Discuss  the  dangers,  so  far  as  effective  vocational  guidance 
is  concerned,  in  the  plan  of  having  separate  courses  of  study  for 
different  groups  of  pupils  in  the  intermediate  school  (or  high 
school) . 

8.  Find  out  the  vocational  aims  of  pupils  in  one  of  the  technical 
or  vocational  courses  in  the  high  school.  For  example,  find  out 
whether  or  not  boys  and  girls  in  the  commercial  course  are  going 
into  commercial  occupations.  What  result  do  you  find  and  what 
conclusions  do  you  draw  ? 

9.  Outline  plans  for  boys  and  girls  to  earn  money  while  at- 
tending school.     What  cautions  must  be  exercised  ? 

10.  Is  there  danger  that  vocational  guidance  will  tempt  chil- 
dren out  of  school?    If  so,  how  can  this  difficulty  be  obviated? 

11.  Examine  the  list  of  hterary  masterpieces  used  in  the  Eng- 
lish work  of  your  school,  to  see  if  they  furnish  any  opportunity  for 
discussing  occupational  problems.  Report  your  findings,  showing 
how  opportunities  may  be  utilized. 

12.  Discuss  with  a  high  school  class  the  proposition  of  using 
for  outside  reading  such  books  as  Allen's  Business  Employments, 
Gowin  and  Wheatley's  Occupations,  and  Weaver  and  Byler's 
Profitable  Vocations  for  Girls.  Find  out  how  many  would  like 
to  use  such  books ;  or  report  upon  actual  use. 

13.  Investigate  the  need  for  and  use  of  parliamentary  law  in 
occupations,  asking  a  number  of  persons  to  give  their  testimony 
on  these  points.  In  view  of  your  findings,  do  you  think  parlia- 
mentary law  should  be  taught  in  the  high  school? 

14.  Examine  a  standard  textbook  in  arithmetic.  Do  you  think 
it  aims  to  furnish  problems  related  to  occupational  Ufe?  Give 
to  the  class  a  criticism  of  the  book,  in  the  hght  of  vocational 
guidance. 

15.  Prepare  plans  for  using  history  for  vocational  guidance 
purposes.  Outline  your  proposals  before  the  class,  giving  illus- 
trations. 


314  APPENDIX   III 

i6.  Show  how  the  ability  to  draw  is  necessary  in  many  kinds 
of  occupations. 

17.  Discuss  the  proposition:  The  ability  to  talk  well  is  a 
necessity  in  many  occupations  and  an  asset  in  all,  therefore  the 
school  should  do  systematic  work  in  oral  English. 

18.  Examine  several  textbooks  in  algebra,  arithmetic,  or 
geometry,  to  find  out  which  ones  have  most  reference  to  problems 
met  in  actual  life.    Report  to  the  class. 

19.  Examine  several  books  used  as  readers  (or  foreign  lan- 
guage textbooks).  Are  they  filled  merely  with  stories  and  ap- 
peals to  curiosity,  or  are  they  supplied  with  some  material  helpful 
for  vocational  guidance  ? 

20.  Investigate  the  books  in  a  library.  Are  enough  of  them 
related  to  occupational  life  ? 

21.  How  can  public  libraries  aid  in  vocational  guidance,  aside 
from  having  the  necessary  books  ? 

22.  Outline  a  plan  for  your  school  to  utilize  the  student  affairs 
and  outside  activities  of  the  pupils  for  the  development  of  quahties 
useful  for  vocational  guidance. 

23.  What  arguments  are  there  for  having  separate  schools  for 
the  prevocational  and  continuation  school  work  ? 

24.  What  arguments  are  there  for  having  the  intermediate  or 
junior  high  school  do  prevocational  and  continuation  work  ? 

25.  What  unsatisfactory  conditions  are  likely  to  arise  in  a 
system  of  vocational  education  without  vocational  guidance  ? 

26.  Do  you  think  that  good  traits  of  character  are  more  easily 
developed  in  a  school  offering  only  instruction  in  academic  sub- 
jects, or  in  one  offering  a  variety  of  subjects  and  other  activities  ? 
Give  reasons. 

Chapter  IV :   Counseling 

1.  How  do  you  explain  the  desire  to  devise  "psychological 
tests"  for  vocational  guidance?  Why  are  school  examinations 
vmsatisfactory  for  testing  vocational  aptitudes  ?  How  could  they 
be  made  more  effective  for  this  purpose  ? 

2.  Prepare  a  blank  form  for  securing  teachers'  opinions  on 
quahties  manifested  by  pupils. 


PROBLEMS  AND  QUESTIONS  315 

3.  Secure  an  application  blank  from  a  firm  of  good  reputation. 
What  qualities  does  their  card  take  into  consideration  ?  Do  you 
think  the  schools  aid  in  the  development  of  these  good  qualities  ? 
Would  the  teachers  be  able  to  state  whether  or  not  a  boy  or  girl 
possesses  these  qualities  ? 

4.  Give  illustrations  to  show  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
talking  about  qualities  in  the  abstract,  without  relation  to  specific 
situations. 

5.  Propose  plans  for  determining  whether  or  not  children 
will  develop  a  high  degree  of  each  of  several  good  qualities. 

6.  Prepare  a  record  card  for  the  purposes  of  vocational  guidance 
in  your  school,  the  card  to  be  used  for  data  about  individual  pupils. 

7.  Interview  some  of  the  persons  who  find  jobs  for  children  in 
your  community.  Can  you  say  that  they  offer  these  children 
adequate  vocational  guidance  ? 

8.  Secure  the  names  and  address  (i)  of  those  who  graduated 
from  your  school  during  the  last  school  year,  and  (2)  of  those  who 
left  school  during  the  same  time.  Find  out  what  they  are  now 
doing  and  report  your  information.  (Aid  of  other  teachers  and 
of  pupils  may  be  secured,  and  the  investigation  may  be  indefinitely 
elaborated.) 

9.  Outline  a  plan  by  which  you  might  do  part-time  teaching 
and  part-time  employment  supervision. 

10.  Interview  the  employment  manager  of  a  factory,  store,  or 
other  business.     What  aims  has  he,  and  what  methods  does  he  use  ? 

11.  What  is  the  significance,  for  the  vocational  guidance  of 
workers,  in  the  movement  to  have  managers  in  charge  of  em- 
ployment ? 

12.  In  what  ways  could  the  school  cooperate  with  the  employ- 
ment managers  ? 

13.  Talk  with  some  of  your  friends  in  various  occupations,  in 
regard  to  the  plan  of  having  occupational  advisors  to  whom  ad- 
vanced pupils  might  go  for  counsel.  In  view  of  your  conversa- 
tions, do  you  think  such  a  plan  would  be  feasible  ? 

14.  Prepare  a  circidar  letter  which  might  be  sent  out  to  men 
and  women  in  all  walks  of  life,  asking  if  they  will  join  in  the  work 
of  advising  parents  and  children  about  occupations. 


3l6  APPENDIX   III 

15.  Find  out  from  some  persons  in  professional  occupations, 
and  from  some  in  industrial  or  commercial  pursuits,  what  decisions 
and  changes  of  decisions  they  made,  in  their  vocational  progress. 
Try  to  analyze  the  causes  of  their  changes  of  mind,  and  to 
determine  whether  or  not  these  changes  were  detrimental  to 
success. 

16.  Draw  up  a  brief  list  of  questions  to  be  investigated  in 
determining  the  characteristics  and  requirements  of  an  occupa- 
tion. Make  the  Ust  an  appropriate  one  for  the  use  of  high-school 
students,  so  that  they  may  obtain  the  answers  by  visits  and  inter- 
views. 

17.  OutUne  a  plan  for  a  vocational-guidance  survey  of  your 
community,  to  be  made  either  (i)  by  the  advanced  pupils  of  your 
school,  or  (2)  by  the  faculty,  or  (3)  by  persons  experienced  in 
vocational  guidance. 

18.  Do  you  think  that  brief  pamphlets  on  occupations  can  be 
used  in  the  schoolroom  ?  How  would  you  use  such  printed  matter, 
and  what  do  you  think  woidd  be  the  results  ? 

19.  Is  it  necessary  that  a  vocational  counselor  should  at  the 
same  time  be  a  teacher?  Should  he  have  had  teaching  experi- 
ence ?     Should  he  have  had  experience  in  several  occupations  ? 

20.  Is  there  any  justification  for  the  statement,  "The  counselor 
for  boys  should  always  be  a  man,  and  for  girls  a  woman  "  ? 

21.  Discuss  the  present  pohcy  of  a  city  in  paying  certain 
vocational  counselors  in  the  high  schools  less  salary  than  is  paid 
to  "regular"  teachers  of  academic  subjects. 

Chapter  V:   Pseudo-Guidance 

1.  Look  up  the  records  of  several  pupils  in  "abstract"  studies 
and  in  "concrete"  subjects.  Do  you  find  that  those  good  in  one 
kind  of  studies  are  poor  in  the  other  kind  ?  Is  there  a  positive 
or  negative  relationship  between  school  marks  in  "abstract"  and 
"concrete"  studies?  If  possible,  work  out  some  correlation 
formulas  to  show  the  facts. 

2.  Show  how  a  boy  who  says  he  disHkes  books  may  be  treated. 

3.  How  would  you  help  order  the  educational  work  of  a  boy 
or  girl  who  professes  to  dislike  aU  handwork  ? 


PROBLEMS  AND  QUESTIONS  317 

4.  Give  instances  to  show  the  need  for  every  person,  no  matter 
how  high  or  low  his  position,  to  be  upon  occasion  a  leader,  and 
upon  other  occasions  a  follower. 

5.  Show  how  the  school  can  develop  for  every  pupil  the 
ability  to  lead  and  to  follow. 

6.  Examine  the  book  "Vocational  Psychology,"  by  Holling- 
worth  (Appleton),  and  review  its  conclusions  for  the  class. 

7.  Visit  two  or  three  progressive  businesses  and  inquire  what 
tests  they  apply  to  find  out  the  aptitudes  and  abilities  of  those 
who  apply  to  them  for  work.  What  results  do  they  claim  for 
these  tests? 

8.  Propose  many  different  plans  for  securing  a  pupil's  de- 
pendability (or  any  other  good  quality). 

9.  Propose  plans  for  testing  a  pupil's  ability  to  "concentrate 
his  mind." 

10.  Propose  a  valid  test  to  determine  a  pupil's  "ability  to 
follow  directions." 

11.  Cite  instances  of  men  and  women  who  have  overcome 
apparent  physical  handicaps  in  their  occupational  progress.  If 
convenient,  bring  direct  testimony  and  opinion  in  these  matters 
to  class. 

12.  Have  you  ever  heard  of  any  way  to  determine  "native 
ability"  as  differentiated  from  "acquired  ability"?  Do  you 
think  there  is  justification  for  using  cither  adjective?  Would 
it  be  useful  to  speak  of  latent  and  actual  ability  ?  Do  you  think 
of  any  methods  to  measure  latent  ability  ? 

13.  What  vocational  advice  might  you  give  to  a  very  small 
yoimg  man  who  wishes  to  be  a  policeman,  or  to  a  girl  who  fails  to 
study  but  wishes  to  become  an  actress  ? 

14.  What  reply  woidd  you  make  to  this  proposition:  "It 
would  be  a  serious  mistake  to  engage  as  a  maker  of  lace  a  person 
with  skin  and  hair  of  coarse  texture"? 

15.  In  spite  of  its  dangers,  has  not  self -analysis  a  great  value, 
at  least  for  mature  persons?  Outline  these  values  and  propose  a 
"safe  and  sane"  method. 

16.  Discuss  this  problem  in  connection  with  "over-guidance": 
Has  anybody  ever  the  right  or  duty  to  tell  a  person  exactly  what 


3l8  APPENDIX  in 

he  should  or  should  not  do  in  the  matter  of  a  pending  vocational 
decision  ?     Give  reasons  and  illustrations. 

17.  Suppose  there  is  a  commercial  agency  in  your  town,  nm  by  a 
well-meaning  person,  for  giving  vocational  advice.  How  would  you 
go  about  putting  the  work  completely  on  an  educational  basis  ? 

18.  At  the  vocational-guidance  convention  at  Philadelphia, 
one  of  the  members  proposed  that  the  federal  government  shoiild 
be  asked  to  deny  the  use  of  the  mails  to  magazines  printing  ad- 
vertisements which  are  questionable  from  the  standpoint  of  good 
vocational  guidance.  What  are  your  comments  on  this  proposi- 
tion? 

19.  Interview  the  persons  in  your  community  who  are  inter- 
ested in  offering  courses  in  salesmanship.  Do  you  find  that  these 
persons  have  an  approvable  social  understanding  of  the  relation- 
ship of  their  work  to  the  welfare  of  society?  What  cautions  do 
they  exercise  to  prevent  unsocial  practices  ? 

20.  State  the  advantages  that  might  come  from  assigning  the 
work  in  vocational  guidance  to  another  department  of  educa- 
tional endeavor. 

Chapter  VI :  The  Young  Worker 

1.  Explain  the  difficulties  which  meet  the  investigator  who 
tries  to  find  out  why  children  leave  school.  What  precautions 
must  be  taken  ? 

2.  Make  a  study  of  a  limited  number  of  cases  of  pupils  who 
have  left  school  during  the  past  year.  What  results  do  you  find, 
and  what  remedies  do  you  propose  ? 

3.  Investigate  the  use  of  child  labor  during  war  time.  Was 
it  necessary  and  profitable  to  lower  the  standards  ? 

4.  Investigate  and  report  upon  the  work  of  the  National 
Child  Labor  Committee. 

5.  Look  up  and  report  upon  the  laws  governing  the  labor  of 
minors  in  your  city  and  state. 

6.  Make  an  appraisement  of  the  ways  open  to  children  in 
your  community  for  obtaining  work.  Discuss  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  the  present  facilities,  and  suggest  possible 
improvements. 


PROBLEMS  AND  QUESTIONS  319 

7.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  children  can  rarely  obtain  really 
good  jobs,  do  you  feel  that  this  is  an  argument  for  keeping  them 
out  of  all  employment,  or  for  organizing  a  plan  to  make  these 
first  jobs  stepping  stones  to  better  positions  ? 

8.  Outline  a  good  plan  for  helping  a  boy  or  girl  to  understand 
the  duties  of  a  position.  Do  you  think  business  firms  are  deiinite 
enough  in  instructions  to  beginners?  Is  the  indefiniteness  which 
exists  due  to  mere  neglect,  or  to  other  reasons? 

9.  Consult  an  employment  manager  of  a  progressive  firm, 
and  report  what  he  has  to  say  on  the  problem  of  juvenUe  labor. 

10.  Schneider  says  that  school  people  claim  that  employers 
would  be  unwilling  to  organize  their  juvenile  help  on  a  part-time 
plan ;  he  says,  too,  that  employers  claim  that  the  school  people 
would  be  the  obstructors.  What  is  your  opinion  in  this  matter? 
If  possible,  gather  some  evidence. 

Chapter  VII :   Problems  of  Employment 

1.  Is  it  necessary  that  the  present  school  pupils  tmderstand 
labor  problems  ?    Give  reasons  and  instances. 

2.  Why  is  it  necessary  for  counselors  to  understand  scientific 
management  ? 

3.  One  of  the  writers  on  scientific  management  or  ''positive 
management"  states  that  under  the  plan  advocated  matters  would 
rest  on  a  "fact  basis,"  and  thus  disputes  would  be  avoided  or 
easily  settled.     Criticise  this  statement. 

4.  What  is  the  difficulty  with  the  statements,  "a  fair  day's 
pay  for  a  fair  day's  work,"  "labor  should  have  what  it  earns," 
"the  product  of  labor  should  go  to  the  laborer"? 

5.  Make  a  fist  of  the  things  that  you  think  a  store  or  factory 
could  do  to  steady  its  force;  i.e.  to  decrease  turnover;  to  keep 
its  help. 

6.  Discuss  the  relative  advantages  to  the  chUd  in  filling  several 
positions  during  the  course  of  a  year  as  against  sticking  to  one  job. 

7.  Investigate  one  or  more  of  these  problems  in  a  store  or 
factory :  Americanization ;  safety-first ;  recreation ;  profit-shar- 
ing ;  breaking  in  new  workmen ;  tendencies  toward  a  more  demo- 
cratic management. 


320  APPENDIX  m 

8.  It  is  often  said  that  the  interests  of  the  employer  and  the 
worker  are  identical.  Even  if  this  be  so,  are  the  problems  of  each 
the  same?    Discuss  these  questions. 

9.  What  kind  of  guidance  do  you  think  is  necessary  for 
persons  seeking  work?  What  is  the  difference  between  an  em- 
ployment bureau  and  a  labor  exchange?  Should  the  problem  of 
juvenUe  help  be  kept  separate  from  adult  employment?  WTiat 
part  in  the  process  of  securing  employment  should  the  worker 
himself  take  ?     How  should  young  girls  secure  employment  ? 

10.  During  active  periods  of  labor  what  steps  need  to  be  taken 
to  provide  against  unemployment  in  dull  times  ? 

11.  In  dull  times  should  city,  state,  and  nation  employ  more 
men  than  usual  ?  Outline  a  plan  for  government  action  to  pre- 
vent or  alleviate  unemployment. 

12.  What  has  the  problem  of  imemployment  to  do  with  the 
question  of  versatility  as  against  specialization  in  vocational 
education  ? 

13.  Investigate  the  subject  of  collective  bargaining,  in  en- 
cyclopedias or  other  sources,  and  in  actual  practice  if  you  can 
interview  persons  who  have  been  parties  to  such  agreements. 
Report  your  findings  and  conclusions. 

14.  Make  out  a  list  of  five  or  more  problems  upon  which  the 
schools  and  the  labor  organizations  can  cooperate.  Outline  plans 
for  such  cooperation. 

15.  Make  an  investigation  and  report  on  one  of  the  following 
topics:  labor  turnover;  duties  and  opportunities  of  the  foreman 
or  overseer;  the  kinds  of  labor  organizations  and  their  aims  and 
methods;  the  American  Federation  of  Labor;  the  Industrial 
Workers  of  the  World  ;  the  land  tax  or  single  tax ;  land  tenure  and 
the  farmer ;  farm  mortgages ;  attitude  of  various  political  parties 
toward  labor  problems;  workingmen's  compensation;  old  age 
pensions;  conciliation  and  arbitration;  profit-sharing;  welfare 
work. 

16.  Suppose  a  boy  of  sixteen  to  eighteen  years  is  about  to 
become  an  operative  in  a  large  factory  which  is  run  on  the  scien- 
tific-management plan.  Write  him  a  brief  statement  concerning 
things  he  needs  to  know  or  the  problems  he  will  meet. 


PROBLEMS   AND   QUESTIONS  32 1 

17.  Suppose  a  young  man  asks  you  whether  or  not  he  should 
join  the  union.    What  reply  would  you  give  him  ? 

18.  A  man  interested  in  employment  problems  states  that  no 
one  should  be  employed  unless  he  can  earn  a  living  wage.  He 
says  that  in  that  case  the  education,  training,  or  care  of  the  un- 
employed would  become  a  social  problem,  "as  it  should  be,"  and 
that  "poverty  would  be  driven  out  into  the  open"  where  it  can 
be  cured.     Discuss  this  point  of  view. 

19.  Do  you  think  that  a  firm  profits  most  from  a  given  sum 
invested  in  cheap  labor  or  in  expensive?  Give  illustrations  and 
reasons. 

20.  Discuss  the  aims  and  methods  of  corporation  schools. 

21.  Discuss  the  general  question:  How  can  the  vocational 
counselor  aid  in  the  work  of  improving  labor  conditions? 

22.  Outline  plans  which  you  intend  to  try  to  carry  out,  as  your 
contribution  to  the  cause  of  industrial  betterment. 

23.  Discuss  this  proposition :  A  high-school  course  in  ele- 
mentary social  and  economic  problems  is  of  greater  importance 
to  the  welfare  of  the  individual  (or  the  community)  than  the  course 
in  occupations. 

Chapter  VIII :   A  Constructive  Program 

1.  Examine  some  modern  geography  textbooks  for  the  pur- 
pose of  finding  out  what  contribution  they  make  to  occupational 
enlightenment.  Report  your  findings,  with  plans  for  improving 
such  books. 

2.  Study  the  proposed  hst  of  subjects  for  children  twelve  to 
sixteen  years  of  age,  given  on  page  231,  and  revise  it  in  the  fight 
of  your  own  experience  and  educational  ideas.  Be  prepared  to 
defend  your  proposals. 

3.  What  reply  would  you  make  to  a  principal  who  says, 
"Difficulties  connected  with  drawing  up  the  school  program  make 
it  impossible  to  provide  so  many  studies  or  to  have  courses  shorter 
than  a  half  year  "  ? 

4.  Investigate  the  availability  and  the  limitations  of  the 
"project  method"  for  teaching  in  the  intermediate  or  high 
school. 


322  APPENDIX   III 

S-  Is  there  any  educational  justification  for  the  practice  of 
organizing  specialized  high  schools?  Should  Greek  and  black- 
smithing  be  under  one  roof,  or  is  it  best  to  separate  them  in  differ- 
ent tj^es  of  schools  ? 

6.  Outline  the  arguments,  in  relation  to  vocational  guidance, 
for  one  of  the  following:  summer  camps;  scouting  activities; 
student  self-government. 

7.  Do  you  see  any  objections  to  the  plan  of  having  every 
teacher  alert  to  find  and  utilize  the  vocational-guidance  implica- 
tions in  every  lesson  ?    Is  there  danger  of  overdoing  the  matter  ? 

8.  Discuss  the  proposition  that  the  vocational  coimselor 
should  at  the  same  time  carry  on  teaching  and  investigating  as 
well  as  counseling. 

9.  Draw  up  a  plan  for  the  organization  of  a  vocational-guid- 
ance bureau  in  your  city. 

10.  Find  out  the  attitude  toward  vocational  guidance  on  the 
part  of  one  of  the  following:  your  school  superintendent;  the 
state  board  of  education  or  commissioner  of  education;  the 
federal  Bureau  of  Education.  Do  you  know  of  other  officials  or 
persons  in  high  positions  who  are  interested?  Give  a  report  of 
your  findings,  with  suggestions  for  utilizing  their  interest  and  help. 

11.  Outline  a  plan  for  collecting  information  about  occupations, 
and  draw  up  an  appropriate  list  of  topics  under  which  to  classify 
the  data  obtained. 

12.  Prepare  a  list  of  topics  in  vocational  guidance  for  the  con- 
sideration of  parents'  meetings. 

13.  What  attitude  should  the  counselor  take  toward  a  parent 
who  insists  that  his  son  or  daughter  ought  to  decide  on  an  occupa- 
tion at  once  ?    Draw  up  a  letter  or  statement  for  such  a  parent. 

14.  Study  some  plans  for  issuing  work  certificates,  and  outline 
a  plan  for  your  city. 

15.  Prepare  a  blank  card  to  be  signed  by  the  employer  before 
a  working  certificate  is  issued. 

16.  Cincinnati  data  seem  to  show  that  those  young  workers 
who  finally  secure  best  positions  are  those  who  have  changed  their 
jobs  one  or  more  times  during  the  year.  Is  there  an  educative 
value  in  changing  jobs  ?    Why  ?    How  should  it  be  safeguarded  ? 


PROBLEMS   AND   QUESTIONS  323 

17.  Prepare  a  blank  and  outline  a  method  for  a  follow-up 
investigation. 

18.  What  kind  of  an  employer  is  "  Uncle  Sam "  ?  Investigate 
conditions  of  labor  in  some  department  of  federal  service,  and 
report  your  findings,  with  recommendations. 

19.  Are  there  any  tendencies  toward  democratic  management 
in  city  or  state  service  ?    In  the  teaching  profession  ? 

20.  What  reply  should  be  made  to  a  principal's  statement, 
"Pupils  must  not  allow  outside  work  to  interfere  with  school 
duties  "  ? 

21.  What  is  meant  by  the  statement,  "Blind  alleys  must  be 
opened"?    Outline  a  plan  for  doing  it. 

22.  Discuss  the  truth  or  falsity  of  one  of  the  following  proverbs, 
from  the  standpoint  of  vocational  guidance,  giving  illustrations : 

A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 
There  is  always  room  at  the  top. 
Opportunity  knocks  but  once. 
All  things  come  to  him  who  waits. 

23.  Secure  a  rating  sheet  or  record  blank  from  a  commercial 
or  industrial  estabUshmcnt,  and  note  how  it  may  be  used  to 
analyze  both  the  job  and  the  individual.  Make  out  a  sample 
rating  of  some  person  you  know,  and  of  an  appropriate  job.  Be 
prepared  to  discuss  the  method  and  the  results. 

24.  Prepare  a  brief  but  thought-stimulating  list  of  questions  for 
pupils  of  the  intermediate  (or  high  school)  age. 

25.  Discuss  the  question  whether  the  vocational  counseling 
should  be  done  by  each  "home-room"  teacher  for  his  pupils,  or 
by  one  teacher  for  the  whole  school. 

26.  Prepare  an  outline  for  a  year  class  in  occupations  for  one 
of  the  following  groups:  fourth  grade;  fifth  or  sixth  grade; 
seventh  grade;  eighth  grade;  first  high  school  year;  second  or 
third  high  school  year ;  high  school  seniors ;  boys  or  girls  in  any 
of  these  groups ;  a  settlement  class ;  an  extension  class  for  work- 
ing boys  or  girls;  a  class  for  adults;  a  "vocational"  school;  a 
technical  college. 


324  APPENDIX    III 

27.  Examine  several  possible  textbooks  available  for  life-career 
(occupations)  classes.  Select  one  for  review,  and  discuss  its 
advantages  and  limitations  and  how  to  use  it. 

28.  In  an  avowedly  vocational  school  could  not  the  occupations 
class  be  dispensed  with?  Outline  an  adequate  plan  of  guidance 
for  a  technical  high  school. 

29.  Discuss  the  relative  importance  of  the  various  possible 
activities  in  vocational  guidance.  If  one  had  to  invest  a  limited 
amount  of  money  and  time  in  vocational  guidance,  \^ath  what 
activities  should  he  begin?  (This  problem  may  best  be  related 
to  a  concrete  situation.) 

30.  Outline  a  proposed  course  or  group  of  courses,  in  the  prin- 
ciples and  practice  of  vocational  guidance,  for  a  normal  school. 

31.  Outline  a  course  for  teachers  already  in  service. 

32.  Write  a  brief  statement  to  show  the  need  for  vocational 
guidance  in  your  school  or  in  an  institution  about  which  you 
know. 

SS-  What  are  the  adva^itages  of  the  plan  of  having  separate 
schools  for  continuation  school  work,  prevocational  work,  and 
intermediate  school  work  ? 

34.  What  ideas  of  your  own  can  you  contribute  to  the  subject 
matter  or  the  method  of  the  Hfe-career  class  ? 

35.  Make  a  list  of  five  interesting  and  valuable  problems  which 
might  be  investigated  by  individual  teachers  or  by  committees 
of  teachers  or  pupils. 

36.  List  in  brief  form  a  few  practicable  plans  by  which  the 
school  may  cooperate  with  commerce  and  industry. 

37.  Can  you  make  a  general  characterization  of  the  articles  on 
vocational  guidance  which  you  have  read? 

38.  How  do  you  intend  to  apply  what  you  have  learned  to 
your  work  in  the  future  ? 


INDEX   OF   NAMES 


Abbott,  Edith,  132,  294. 
Alden,  George  I.,  197,  292. 
Alderman,  L.  R.,  84,  292. 
Alexander,  Magnus  W.,  208,  292. 
Allen,  Frederick  J.,  31,  292. 
Angell,  James  R.,  292. 
Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  99,  132,  156,  179, 
292,  293. 

Bagley,  W.  C,  162,  293. 

Barnard,  J.  L.,  72,  293. 

Bartlett,  L.  W.,  229,  293. 

Bate,  William  G.,  72,  293. 

Bawden,  William  T.,  87,  293. 

Bloomfield,  Meyer,  2,  4,  6,  13,  21,  25, 
41,  48,  50,  58,  78,  100,  106,  117,  123, 
127,  130,  134,  138,  140,  141,  156, 
158,  162,  179,  181,  183,  185,  186, 
192,  209,  211,  216,  220,  226,  241, 
242,  256,  262,  264,  274,  293,  294. 

Blumenthal,  Gustave  A.,  153,  294. 

Bolton,  Frederick  E.,  45,  294. 

Bonser,  Frederick  G.,  70,  87,  141,  294. 

Brandeis,  Louis,  202. 

Breckenridge,  Sophonisba,  116,  132, 
294. 

Breese,  B.  B.,  123,  156,  159,  294. 

Brewer,  John  M.,  292,  294,  295. 

Briggs,  Thomas  H.,  60,  295. 

Brooks,  Stratton  D.,  32,  35. 

Brown,  Edith,  85,  302. 

Bryner,  Edna,  132,  296. 

Burk,  Frederic,  57,  295. 

Burris,  William  T.,  65,  295. 

Cabot,  Ella  Lyman,  295. 
Chamberlain,  James  F.,  70,  295. 
Claxton,  Philander  P.,  81,  296. 
Clopper,  Edward  N.,  184,  296. 
Cole,  Percival  R.,  75,  296. 
Collet,  Miss,  296. 

Colleton,  Eleanor  M.,  180,  186,  296. 
Coman,  Katherine,  219,  296. 


Davis,  Anne  S.,   185,   187,   241,  296, 

297. 
Davis,  Jesse  B.,  3,  47,  48,  67,  81,  84, 

103,   106,   no,   132,   137,   141,   179, 

184,  228,  256,  263,  297. 
Davis,  Philip,  4,  80,  184,  212,  297. 
Dearborn,  Walter  F.,  297. 
Dearie,  N.  B.,  132,  215,  261,  297. 
Denison,  Elsa,  84,  297. 
Devine,  Edward  T.,  9,  91,  113,  297. 
Dewey,  Evelyn,  297. 
Dewey,  John,  57,  65,  297. 
Dodge,  Harriet  Hazel,  297. 
Dopp,  Katherine  E.,  59,  297. 
Dunn,  Arthur  W.,  72,  297. 

Eaton,  Jeanette,  91,  133,  298. 
Eaton,  Mary  N.,  67. 
Eliot,  Charles  W.,  2,  58,  274,  298. 
Elliff,  J.  D.,  270,  298. 
Emerson,  Harrington,  292,  298. 

Feiss,  Richard  A.,  160,  210,  211,  298. 
Filene,  A.  Lincoln,  209,  298. 
Filene,  E.  A.,  120. 
Fitch,  John  A.,  132,  298. 
Fleming,  Ralph  D.,  132,  296. 
Fletcher,  Alfred  P.,  298. 
Fullerton,  Hugh  S.,  166,  298. 

Gantt,  H.  L.,  202,  298. 
Garnett,  J.  C.  Maxwell,  139,  298. 
Gayler,  G.  W.,  298. 
Giddings,  Franklin  H.,  152,  153,  299. 
Gilbrcth,  Frank  B.,  202,  299. 
Giles,  F.  W.,  124,  132,  299. 
Gillette,  John  M.,  72,  91,  299. 
Ginn,  Susan  B.,  33,  104. 
Goldmark,  Josephine,  203,  299. 
Goodwin,  Frank  P.,  85,  299. 
Gowin,  Enoch  B.,  44,  133,  152,  299. 
Greany,  Ellen  M.,  2,  299. 
Gruenberg,  Benjamin  C,  209,  299. 


32s 


326 


INDEX   OF  NAMES 


Hancock,  Harris,  isg,  209. 

Haney,  James  Parton,  73,  299. 

Hanus,  Paul  H.,  59,  Qi.  99.  242,  299, 300. 

Harper,  Jane  R.,  243,  300. 

Haynes,  John,  72,  299. 

Healy,  William,  17s,  30o- 

Heck,  W.  H.,  162,  300. 

Henderson,  91. 

Hicks,  Warren  E.,  194,  300. 

Hill,  David  Spence,  133,  167,  300. 

Hollingworth,  H.  L.,  159,  300. 

Hopkins,  Ernest  M.,  209,  300. 

Horton,  D.  W.,  40,  108,  300. 

Hoxie,  Robert  F.,  202,  221,  260,  300. 

Hyde,  William  DeWitt,  300. 

Jacobs,  Charles  L.,  44,  228,  300. 
James,  William,  159,  301. 
Jennings,  Irwin  G.,  270,  301. 
Jevons,  W.  Stanley,  71,  301. 
Johnson,  George  E.,  57,  238,  301. 
Judd,  Charles  H.,  162,  301. 

Kelley,  Truman  L.,  171,  301- 
Kelly,  Roy  WiUmarth,  32,  292,  301. 
Kennedy,  Albert  J.,  182,  308. 
'  Kitson,  H.  D.,  127,  159,  171,  301. 

Lapp,  John  A.,  91,  301. 

Laselle,  Mary  A.,  301. 

Lathrop,  Julia  C,  241,  301. 

Leavitt,  Frank  M.,  9,  49,  1°,  8s,  Qi. 

124,  132,  302. 
Lee,  Joseph,  55,  302. 
Lewis,  Ervin  E.,  132. 
Lord,  Everett  W.,  183,  302. 
Lough,  James  E.,  iS7.  is8,  302. 
Lovejoy,  Owen  R.,  302. 
Lull,  Herbert  G.,  302. 
Lutz,  R.  R.,  296. 

MacCarthy,  Jessie  Howell,  246,  302. 

MacKenzie,  Henry,  21. 

Maclaurin,  R.  C,  99. 

Manly,  Basil  M.,  215,  221,  262,  302. 

Martin,  Charles,  123,  302. 

McCann,  Mathew  R.,  91,  303. 

Mead,  A.  D.,  303. 

Mead,  George  Herbert,  303. 

Meumann,  147. 

Miles,  H.  E.,  89,  303- 

Mitchell,  John,  202,  221,  303. 


Montgomery,  Louise,  132. 
Moore,  Ernest  C,  162,  227,  303. 
Mote,  Carl  H.,  91,  301. 
Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  156,  303. 
Myers,  George  E.,  88,  133.  277.  303- 

Nearing,  Scott,  219,  304. 

Odencrantz,  Louise  C,  6,  112,  304. 
O'Leary,  Iris  P.,  132,  296. 
Overstreet,  Harry,  304. 

Parsons,  Belle  Ragnor,  S9.  304- 
Parsons,  Frank,  20,  44,  85,  106,   132, 

141,  162,  168,  171,  304. 
Pascal,  21. 

Peixotto,  Sidney  S.,  82,  126. 
Perkins,  Frances,  132,  304. 
Pillsburj',  W.  B.,  162,  304. 
Post,  E.  A.,  236. 

Pritchard,  Myron  T.,  72,  274,  304. 
Prosser,  Charies  A.,  305. 
Puffer,  J.  Adams,  153,  168,  305. 
Purington,  172. 

Rathmann,  Cari  G.,  76.  i°S- 
Redfield,  William  C,  201,  305. 
Reed,  Anna  Y.,  305. 
Reilly,  PhiUp  J.,  118. 
Richards,  Charles  R.,''i30, 132,  i39. 30S- 
Richards,  Lysander  S.,  21,  305. 
Righter,  Leonard,  305. 
Roman,  Frederick  W.,  207,  305. 

Schneider,  Hermann,  10,  91,  92,  ii7. 

132,   ISO,   151,   159.   197,   205,   220, 

236,  249,  289,  291,  305. 
Scott,  Colin  A.,  238,  305- 
Scott,  Walter  Dill,  161.  174,  3o6. 
Sears,  J.  B.,  10,  306. 
Seashore,  Carl  Emile,  161,  306. 
Segal,  147- 

Shaw,  Frank  P.,  132,  296. 
Shaw,  Pauline  A.,  23. 
Shorey,  Paul,  222,  306. 
Snedden,  David,  91,  197- 
Spaulding,  F.  E.,  123,  306. 
Stevens,  Bertha,  91,  132,  296,  298. 
Stimson,  R.  W.,  91,  139.  236,  306. 

Talbert,  E.  L.,  132. 

Taylor,  Frederick  W.,  200,  202,  306. 


INDEX   OF   NAMES 


327 


Thompson,  Clarence  B.,  203,  306. 
Thompson,  Frank  V.,  34,  89,  91,  102, 

114,  ISO,  160,  306. 
Thorndike,  Edward  L.,  126,  147,  162, 

307- 
Thum,  William,  197,  198,  307. 
Todd,  Arthur  J.,  307. 
Turkington,  Grace,  274,  304. 

Valentine,  Robert  G.,  212. 
Van  Denburg,  Joseph  K.,  179,  307. 
Van  Sickle,  James  H.,  15,  307. 
Veblen,  Thorstein,  222,  307. 

Ward,  Lester  F.,  207,  307. 
Weaver,  E.  W.,  307. 


Wells,  Ralph  G.,  308. 

Westgate,  C.  E.,  136,  308. 

Wheatley,    William   A.,   44,    79,    132, 

133,  152,  299,  308. 
Wile,  Ira  S.,  308. 
Willits,  Joseph  H.,  209,  216,  308. 
Winch,  W.  H,  149,  308. 
Wood,  Arthur  Evans,  217,  308. 
Woods,  Erville  B.,  77,  137,  207,  262, 

308. 
Woods,  Robert  A.,  182,  308. 
Woolley,  Helen  Thompson,   loi,  108, 

14s,    148,    151,    IS9,   160,    180,    194, 

308,  309. 
Woolman,  Mary  Schenck,  X32,  309. 
Wright,  F.  W.,  60,  309. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


Activities  of  pupils,  use  of,  in  vocational 

guidance,  8i,  232,  240,  263,  265,  275. 

Advertisements,  vocational,  danger  in, 

5,  215. 
Advisory    committees,    50,    122,    123, 

224,  229,  247,  249. 
Age,  for  vocational  choice,   125,  230, 

234,  248;   for  compulsory  schooling, 

113,  286. 
Agriculture,  48,  74,  263. 
Aim,  changes  of,  2,  104,  123,  127. 
Analysis,   of   personal   qualities,  102- 

los,  144,  168. 
Appointment  agencies,  49. 
Arithmetic,  69. 
Association  of  pupils  with  each  other, 

guidance  through,  79. 
Athletics,  vocational  value  of,  80,  280. 
Attempts  to  limit  the  field  of  vocational 

guidance,  5. 

Beginnings  in  vocational  guidance, 
20-52. 

Berkeley,  44. 

Bicycle-balls  test,  156. 

Birmingham,  England,  voluntary  com- 
mittees in,  123,  224,  247. 

Blind  alley,  89,  148,  185,  196,  273, 
277,  289. 

Books  on  occupations,  269. 

Boston  Employment  Managers'  Asso- 
ciation, 25,  120. 

Boston  Placement  Bureau,  109,  114. 

Boston  plan  for  vocational  guidance, 
24-37,  61. 

Boston  Schools,  Vocational-Guidance 
Department,  32,  33,  34,  65,  90,  124. 

Boy  Scouts,  80,  234. 

Bufialo,  vocational-guidance  plan  in, 
43- 


Bureau,  Vocation,  of  Boston,  23,  24, 
25,  31,  46,  241,  242;  of  Chicago,  42. 

Bureau,  of  Education,  U.  S.,  136,  244 ; 
of  Occupations,  Intercollegiate,  49; 
Vocation,  of  Boston,  23-25,  31, 
46,  129,  241,  242;  of  Vocational 
Guidance,  Harvard  University,  32. 

Camps,   value   for  guidance,   47,    80, 

237- 

Career,  opportunity  for,  260,  262; 
child's  interest  in,  263. 

Certificate,  working,  175,  189,  252. 

Character,  63,  64,  92-95,  164. 

Chicago,  plan  for  vocational  guidance 
in,  42,  49- 

Child  labor,  178. 

Choice  of  school,  2,  12,  273. 

Choice  of  studies,  60,  231. 

Choice,  of  vocations,  i,  246,  264; 
age  for,  125,  230;  alternative,  3, 
127,  274;  change  of,  123;  freedom, 
10;  investigation  of,  266;  tenta- 
tive, 2,  274;  time  of,  II,  14,  125. 

Cincinnati,  43,  loi,  114. 

Citizenship,  relation  to  vocational 
guidance,  3. 

Civics,  guidance  through,  70. 

Civic  Service  House  of  Boston,  23,  125. 

Civil  Service  Commission,  U.S.,  136. 

Classification,  of  children,  danger  in, 
II,  54,  150,  154,  155;  of  occupa- 
tions, 137. 

Cleveland,  91,  113,  133.  160. 

Clubs,  vocational-guidance  work  in, 
48,  80-84,  275. 

Colleges,  courses  in  vocational  guid- 
ance, 45,  281 ;  placement  in,  49 ; 
vocational  guidance  in,  236,  270. 

Columbia  Park  Boys'  Club,  82. 


328 


INDEX   OF    SUBJECTS 


329 


Commercial  agencies  for  vocational 
counsel,  dangers  in,  172. 

Commercial  occupation,  definition  of, 
289. 

Commission  on  Industrial  Relations, 
U.S.,  216. 

Competition,  need  for,  238. 

Composition,  written  and  oral,  for 
guidance,  67,  267. 

Continuation  schools,  85,  88,  180,  187- 
189,  193,  19s,  273,  277,  289;  of 
Boston,  189,  257;  of  Wisconsin, 
188. 

Control,  of  schools  by  state,  229;  of 
vocational  guidance  by  other 
agencies,  144,  175. 

Cooperation,  for  character  training, 
93 ;  of  children  with  each  other, 
105,  27s;  for  choosing  occupation, 
246;  for  employment  supervision, 
253;  for  improving  conditions  of 
labor,  193,  254 ;  for  legislation,  255  ; 
for  obtaining  information,  245 ; 
for  part-time  work,  249;  for  place- 
ment, 250;  for  preparation  for  the 
vocation,  248;  schools  founded  on, 
193;  for  vocational  guidance,  244- 
257,  284,  285. 

Cooperative  schooling,  289,  see  Part- 
time  plan. 

Coordinators,  work  of,  117,  250,  274; 
definition  of,  289. 

Correlation  between  mental  and 
manual  abiUties,  148. 

Counseling,  at  Boston  Vocation 
Bureau,  26;  erroneous  methods  of, 
143-177;  need  for,  97;  questions 
dealt  with  in,  99;  requests  for  by 
mail,  28;  special  problems  of,  122; 
through  religious  associations,  47. 

Counselor,  college  courses  for,  45, 
281;  equipment  of,  141,  282;  expert, 
240;  opportunities  of,  214,  225, 
236,  242,  270;  teacher  as,  141,  238. 

Courses,  for  employment  managers, 
46,  121;  for  vocational  counselors, 
24,  26,  281;   school,  77,  155,  283. 

Dartmouth  College,  46,  65,  121. 

Dayton  leaflets,  249. 

DeKalb,  111.,  plan  for  guidance,  43. 


Democracy,  in  general  high  schools, 
235 ;   industrial,  255,  262,  284,  289. 

Democratic  management,  255,  262, 
284,  289. 

Dennison  Manufacturing  Company, 
118,  217,  261. 

Dexterity,  289. 

Differentiation,  in  school  studies  and 
program,  59.  61,  285,  289. 

Discharges  from  work,  119,  120,  187- 
192. 

Discontent,  constructive,  uses  of,  221. 

Dramatization,  2,  55,  69,  75,  81,  238, 
280. 

Drawing,  relation  to  vocational  guid- 
ance, 68,  72. 

Economics,     guidance     through,     70; 

necessity  for,  71-72,  222. 
Edinburgh,  41. 
Education,   desire   for  continued,   38, 

54- 
Educational  guidance,  12,  14,  53,  265, 

290. 
Educational  survey,  128. 
Efficiency,  174,  200,  207. 
Elementary  schools,  58,  229,  267. 
Elimination    of    pupils    from    school, 

179-183,  239,  263. 
Employee,  problems  of,  214. 
Employer    in    relation    to    guidance,^ 

no,  III,  116,  199-214,  246. 
Employment,  problems  of,  199-226. 
Employment  agencies,  219,  286. 
Employment     manager,     associations 

for,     25,     120;      cooperation    with 

school  people,  121;    courses  for,  46; 

definition    of,    290;    extending   the 

work  of,    259;    use  of  tests,    165; 

guidance  through,  118. 
Employment    supervision,     114,     115, 

117,   191,    194,   251,    253,   274,   284, 

290. 
Energizing  jobs,  10. 
England,    plans    used    in,    122;     see 

Birmingham. 
English,  use  for  guidance,  66,  67,  266, 

267. 
Environment,  153. 
Examinations,  102;   civil  service,  136; 

physical,  210. 


33^ 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


Experiments,  on  theory  of  types,  147. 
Expert  counselor,  240. 

False  methods  of  guidance.  4,  21,  143- 

177. 
Farming,  guidance  in,  48,  263. 
Field  of  vocational  guidance,  attempts 

to  limit,  5. 
Filene's    Sons    Company,    Wm.,    iig, 

210,  211,  225. 
Flexibility  in  school  organization,  62, 
Follow-up  work,  49,  114,  116,  129,  190, 

290. 
Foreign  schools,  guidance  in,  50. 
Foreigners  in  Boston,  imguided,  36. 
Forestry  work,  in  simimer  camp,  47. 
Formal  discipline,  theory  of,  162. 
Funds  for  vocational  guidance,  286. 

Gardening,  74. 

Gary  plan,  44,  65. 

General  shop,  233. 

Geography,  70. 

Germany,  277. 

Glossary,  289-291. 

Grand  Rapids,  37-40,  39,  61,  67,  79, 
103,  124. 

Guidance,  in  association  of  students 
with  each  other,  79;  educational, 
12,  14,  S3,  265,  290;  through  em- 
ployment manager,  118;  in  entering 
upon  work,  275 ;  false  methods  of, 
143-177;  through  governmental 
projects,  47;  methods  of,  263; 
through  newspapers,  172;  not  for 
classifying  children,  1 1 ;  not  merely 
practical  or  idealistic,  8;  not 
prescriptive,  1 1 ;  not  a  temporary 
act,  7;  through  other  agencies,  46; 
through  placement,  108;  in  pre- 
paring for  a  vocation,  272 ;  problems 
in  school,  15;  in  progress  and 
promotion,  276;  by  religious  organ- 
izations, 46;  in  surveying  oppor- 
tunities, 265. 

Habits,  formation  of  good,  157,  158. 
Harvard  University,  32,  233. 
Health  advice,  210. 
Henry  Street  Settlement,  48,  192. 
Heredity,  107,  108. 


High  Schools,  35,  60,  103,  235,  237, 
270. 

History,  as  a  school  study,  70;  of 
vocational  guidance,  see  Beginnings. 

Homestead  Commission  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 48. 

Hood  and  Sons,  H.  P.,  119. 

"Idea-thinkers,"  144. 

Improvibility,  measuring,  158,  284. 

Indiana  Survey,  128,  224. 

Individual  differences,  155. 

Industrial  education,  290;  see  Voca- 
tional education. 

Industrial  occupation,  definition  of, 
290. 

Industrial  survey,  290. 

Information  about  occupations, 
classifying,  137;  collecting,  128- 
140,  24s;  uses  of,  140,  244;  for 
vocational  choices,  266. 

Intermediate  school,  44,  59,  230,  234, 
26s,  290. 

Investigations,  in  college  courses,  281 ; 
of  elimination  from  school,  239; 
in  Iowa,  181 ;  of  labor  turnover, 
208 ;  of  types,  146 ;  of  vocation 
bureau  of  Boston,  25. 

Janitor  work,  for  pupils,  81. 

Job,  blind  alley,  89,  185,  196;  chang- 
ing, 191,  209;  clean-collar,  271; 
definition  of,  290;  mapping  or 
writing  specifications  of,  118,  190, 
260,  264,  277. 

Junior  high  school,  44,  S9,  230,  234, 
265,  290. 

Kindergarten,  55,  58,  229,  280. 

Labor,  improving  conditions  of,  254, 
257;  organizations,  220;  problems 
of,  221. 

Land,  opportimity  to  use,  262. 

Larkin  Company,  211. 

Leadership,  153,  275. 

Leaving  school,  reasons  for,  179. 

Legislation,  198,  213,  225,  252,  255, 
256,  285,  286. 

Libraries,  48. 

Life-career,  definition  of,  290. 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


33^ 


Life-career  class,  44,  77-79,  98,  139, 
230.  231,  23g,  246,  247,  248,  263, 
266-270,  280,  281,  283,  285. 

Life-career  motive,  2,  9,  58. 

London,  messenger  boys  in,  261. 

LongfBeach,  44. 

Los  Angeles,  44,  59.  74.  225,  234. 

Loyalties,  use  of,  94. 

Manly  Report,  215,  224. 

Manual  arts,  73,  74,  86,  232,  265. 

Massachusetts,  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, 122. 

Mathematics,  73. 

Mental  antagonisms,  148. 

Mental  types,  see  Types. 

Methods  of  teaching,  57. 

Methods  of  vocational  guidance,  S4. 
57.  263,  279. 

Milwaukee,  43. 

Minimum  essentials  of  guidance,  36. 

Minneapolis  survey,  79,  86,  91,  128, 
129,  179,  186,  197,  224,  24s,  276. 

Minnesota,  University  of,  45 ;  school 
age  in,  181. 

Mishawaka,  plan  in,  40,  61,  116. 

Morals  and  vocation,  3,  64,  174;  see 
Character. 

Motorman,  test,  156. 

"Motor-minded  type,"  146. 

Museums,  76,  237,  268. 

Music,  280. 

National  Association  of  Manufacturers, 
89,  183,  188. 

National  Conference  on  Vocational 
Guidance,  24. 

National  Vocation  Guidance  Associa- 
tion, 44,  100. 

Need  for  vocational  guidance,  4,  20, 

21,  5°.  97- 
Newton,  plan  in,  43. 
New  York  City,  40. 
Next  steps  in  vocational  guidance,  285. 
Normal  schools,  classes  in  vocational 

guidance,  46,  279,  286. 

Oakland,  plan  in,  44. 
Occupational  information,  see  Informa- 
tion. 


Occupational  survey,  291. 

Occupations,  books  on,  269;  Bureau 
of,  49;  careers  in,  260;  center  of 
interest,  2;  choosing,  246;  classes 
in,  50,  62,  77-79,  139.  230,  231,  239, 
246,  247,  263,  265,  266,  283,  285; 
classification  of,  137 ;  constant,  for 
girls  and  for  boys,  19s;  definition 
of,  290;  dramatization  of,  55; 
industrial,  290;  preparation  for, 
90;    skilled,  291;    teaching,  268. 

Oral  English,  67,  267. 

Organization,  of  counselors,  286;  of 
workers,  220;  of  schools  and  school 
studies,  58,  60,  62,  63,  65,  228,  283. 

Over-guidance,  124,  170. 

Parents,  122,  123,  195,  237,  240,  247, 
249.  277,  283. 

Parliamentary  law,  69. 

Part-time  plans,  36,  117,  193,  197, 
234,  239,  249,  257,  273,  291. 

Philadelphia,  43. 

Phrenology,  22,  155,  167. 

Physical  characteristics,  143,  154.  165. 

Physical  examinations,  210. 

Placement,  advantages  of,  108;  in 
business  organizations,  49;  co- 
operation in,  250-253;  definition 
of,  291 ;  disadvantages  of,  109,  250, 
275;  efficiency  of,  112;  guidance 
through,  114,  108;  only  one  step, 
S;  a  problem  for  the  counselor,  183, 
194;  in  school  departments,  48; 
unsatisfactory,  275. 

Plans  for  vocational  guidance,  20-52, 

195- 
Play,  2,  55,  80,  229,  237. 
Portland  Survey,  128. 
Prcvocational  work,  14,  85,  193,  265.  ' 
Principal,     work     in    guidance,     239, 

240. 
Problems,  of  vocational  guidance,   i, 

15,  17;   of  employment,  199-226. 
Professions,  291. 
Program  for  vocational  guidance,  227- 

287 ;  next  steps  in,  285. 
Program  of  studies,  291 ;   see  Studies. 
Project  method,  234. 
Promotion,   in   school   and   jobs,    260, 

264 ;  guidance  in  securing,  276. 


332 


INDEX   OF   SUBJECTS 


Prophecy,    to   be   avoided,    ii,    124, 

170. 
Psychology,  use  of  in  guidance,  12,  22, 

99,  143,154,  156,  159- 
Pseudo-guidance,  21-22,  143-177. 

Readjustments,  264. 

Records,  cards  for,  105,  161,  201,  239, 

266,  270,  284. 
Recreation  League  of  San  Francisco, 

47. 
Reed  College,  45. 
Richmond  Survey,   7g,  gi,   128,   179, 

183,  186,  224,  245,  277. 
Rochester,  44,  249. 

Salesmanship,  161,  174. 

San  Jose,  44. 

Scholarships,  113,  196,  242. 

Science,  school  study  of,  72. 

Scout  activities,  80,  234. 

Scientific  management,  199-208,  260. 

Scrap  books,  267. 

Self-analysis,  104,  168,  170. 

Self-government  among  pupils,  81,  93, 

234- 

Service,  ideal  of,  94,  253. 

Settlements,  vocational  guidance  in, 
48. 

Signs  of  improvement  in  industry,  223. 

Skilled  occupation,  291. 

Social  perspective,  necessity  for,  144, 
172,  175- 

Social  sciences,  70. 

Somerville,  42. 

Specialization,  92,  233,  235,  236. 

Steadying  employment,  208,  217. 

Student  activities,  81,  225,  240,  263, 
265.  275. 

Studies  of  school  program,  66,  231. 

Success,  habit  of,  62,  105,  164,  173 ; 
records  of,  266. 

Suggestion,  misuse  of,  174. 

Summer  camps,  80,  237. 

Superintendent  of  schools,  243,  284. 

Supervision  of  employment,  see  Em- 
ployment supervision. 

Surveys,  educational,  128;  industrial, 
179,  290;  occupational,  291;  of 
occupational  opportunities,  264,  265 ; 
vocational,  128-140,  291. 


Taxation,  71,  262. 

Teacher,  work  of,  141,  237,  254,  285. 

Technical  school,  291. 

Telephone  operator  test,  156. 

Tests,  14;  limitations  of,  143;  over- 
estimation  of,  156;  standardized, 
161 ;  use  of,  99,  164. 

"Thing-thinkers,"  144. 

Thrift,  63,  72,  274. 

Trade  school,  291. 

Training  for  vocational  guidance,  279, 
284. 

Transfer  of  mental  qualities,  161,  162. 

Trial  courses,  233. 

Troy,  44. 

Turnover  of  employees,  208. 

Types,  of  children,  54;  of  minds,  12, 
87,  143-155 ;  of  schools  needed, 
228,  235;    of  thinking,  12. 

Typewriter  test,  156. 

Unemployment,  215. 

Versatility,  need  for,  233. 

Vocation,  definition  of,  291. 

Vocational  counsehng,  97-142. 

Vocational  education  and  training, 
14,  15,  90,  92,  272,  291. 

Vocational  guidance,  central  bureau 
for,  241,  242;  classes  for  study  of, 
45,  279,  291;  definition  of,  1,  228, 
291 ;  relation  to  other  aims,  3 ; 
relation  to  other  departments,  241 ; 
survey  for,  291. 

Vocational  guidance  through  educa- 
tional guidance,  53-96. 

Vocational  survey,  291 ;    see  Surveys. 

"Vocophy,"2i. 

Wages,  186,  189,  201,  219. 
Washington  State  College,  45. 
Welfare  work,  211. 
WUl  power,  misuse  of,  172-175. 
Wisconsin,  44,  89,  115,  187,  192. 
Women's  Educational  and  Industrial 

Union,  Boston,  45,  50. 
Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute,  45. 
Work,  betterment  of,  193  ;  as  center  of 

interest,    2;     entering    upwn,     264, 

27s;    guidance   in   obtaining,    214; 

how  obtained  by  children,  182 ;  kinds 


INDEX   OF    SUBJECTS 


333 


of,  open  to  young  workers,  183; 
opportunities  offered  by,  187. 

Work  certificates,  175,  189,  252. 

Worker,  the  young,  178-198;  equip- 
ment of,  199;  problems  of,  214; 
rights  of,  20s,  220. 


Working    experience,     during    school 
time,  63  ;   see  Parl-lime  plan. 

Young  Men's  Christian  Associations, 

46. 
Young  Worker,  see  Worker. 


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